** 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


AND 


HOW  TO  REMEDY  THEM 


A  practical  book  for  the  Automobile  Owner, 
Operator,    Dealer,    Builder,    Salesman, 
Experimenter  and  Student  of  Mech- 
anical  Achievements. 


REVISED  EDITION 


—BY- 
CHARLES  P.  ROOT 

Form«  Editor  of  "Motor  Age." 


1911—1912 
THE  CHARLES  C.  THOMPSON  COMPANY 

CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 


till 


Copyright  1911,  by 

CHARLES  C.  THOMPSON  CO. 

CHICAGO,  U.S.A. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Copyright.  MCMIX 

By  THE  CHAktES  C  THOMPSON  CO. 

(Not  Inc  ) 


CONTENTS 

SYMPTOMS  AND  CAUSES  OF  TROUBLES   8 

BACK  FIRING,  CAUSES  AND  REMEDY  27 

BLOW    BACKS    32 

CARBURATION  TROUBLES   35 

COMPRESSION    .* 51 

CYLINDER  TROUBLES  56 

IGNITION  TROUBLES 60 

KNOCKS  IN  CYLINDER  OR  GEARINGS 95 

LUBRICATION    100 

MUFFLER  TROUBLES  106 

PISTON  TROUBLES  114 

Loss  OF  POWER  1 18 

STARTING  TROUBLES  124 

TIRE  TROUBLES   132 

VALVE  TROUBLES   150 

WATER  CIRCULATION  154 

NON-FREEZING  MIXTURES   166 

STARTING  ON  THE  SWITCH 171 

NOISE  FROM  TRANSMISSION  GEARS  176 

TIMER  TROUBLE  AND  REMEDY  177 

TROUBLE  WITH  VALVE  TAPPETS  180 

ENGINE  HARD  TO  START 186 

OVERHAUL  AND  REPAIR  OF  CAR  199 

250474 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


AUTOMOBILE   TROUBLES. 

In  case  of  trouble  with  the  engine  or  other  essential  parts 
of  a  motor  car  it  is  important  to  learn  as  soon  as  possible  the 
exact  nature  of  the  trouble.  Diagnosis  is  at  times  difficult, 
and  requires  experience,  because  in  many  cases  there  may  be 
quite  a  number  of  symptoms  for  a  failure,  and  the  same  symp- 
toms may  be  common  to  many  failures.  To  assist  beginners, 
therefore,  in  their  diagnosis,  two  tables  have  been  drawn  up. 
In  one  the  various  "Symptoms"  of  failure,  with  their 
"Causes,"  are  set  down  in  parallel  columns.  The  other  is  ar- 
ranged in  three  columns :  in  column  I  are  set  down  the  vari- 
ous "Failures"  in  alphabetical  order;  next  come  the  "Symp- 
toms," and  after  that  the  "Causes." 

For  example,  if  the  engine  stops,  the  beginner  will  save 
much  time  by  looking  up  "Stoppage  of  Engine"  in  Table  I. 
He  will  find  the  probable  causes  set  out,  and  having  thus  got 
the  key,  will  find  further  on  in  these  pages  full  directions  for 
putting  matters  right. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  he  thinks  he  knows  what  the  failure 
is,  he  can  turn  to  Table  II.  The  "Symptoms"  in  the  second 
column  will  confirm  him  in  his  belief,  or  otherwise,  and  the 
"Causes,"  as  before,  will  assist  him  in  putting  matters  right. 
For  example  the  driver  finds  when  trying  to  start  that  there  is 
no  compression.  He  turns,  therefore,  to  "Compression,  None," 
in  Table  II,  and  there  finds  the  causes,  which  are  dealt  with 
more  fully  in  the  articles  which  follow. 

Before  discussing  in  detail  the  possible  roadside  failures,  we 
have  one  word  of  advice  to  offer.  If  the  engine  stops,  or  be- 


6  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

gins  to  run  sluggishly,  much  time  may  often  be  saved  by  try- 
ing one  or  two  vital  points  before  making  a  systematic  diag- 
nosis. For  example,  flood  the  carbureter  to  make  sure  that  the 
feed  is  all  right,  try  the  engine  for  overheating,  and  then 
make  a  hasty  examination  of  the  wire  connections.  If  one  is 
loose,  the  trouble  is  located  without  a  moment's  delay.  Fail- 
ing that,  test  the  battery.  If  two  are  carried,  both  being  wired 
up  with  a  two-way  switch,  switch  on  the  second,  and  if  the 
car  runs  all  right,  it  may  be  taken  that  the  battery  was  at 
fault.  Failing  the  battery,  try  the  spark  plug  and  the  contact 
maker  or  breaker.  If  all  these  are  in  order,  it  is  better  then 
to  proceed  on  a  systematic  examination. 

It  is  always  advisable,  after  regulating  or  adjusting  any 
particular  part,  to  try  if  the  car  will  then  run  satisfactorily. 
If  a  number  of  adjustments  are  made,  one  after  another,  and 
the  engine  is  then  started  and  is  found  to  be  all  right,  the 
operator  is  no  wiser  as  to  the  actual  cause  of  the  trouble,  and 
his  experience  is  not  increased.  If,  however,  he  tests  the  car 
after  each  operation,  he  locates  the  exact  source  of  the  trouble, 
and  consequently,  when  it  next  occurs,  the  symptoms  are 
familiar,  and  he  can  locate  the  trouble  at  once. 

Would-be  automobilists  must  not  be  alarmed  at  the  length 
of  this  work  on  troubles  and  their  remedies  and  conclude 
that  the  number  of  possible  defects  and  troubles  is  enormous. 
The  system  of  diagnosis  which  we  have  adopted  necessitates 
much  repetition  if  it  is  to  prove  effective  in  enabling  a  driver 
who  is  in  trouble  to  locate  at  once  the  source  of  that  trouble. 
If  a  plain  list  were  made  of  all  the  possible  roadside  failures  it 
would  not  run  to  alarming  dimensions.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  we  deal  with  possible,  not  probable,  failures,  and 
no  one  motorist  is  ever  likely  to  meet  with  more  than  a  small 
proportion  of  those  dealt  with. 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  7 

As  it  often  happens  that  failures  to  start  are  due  to  some 
neglect  on  the  part  of  the  driver,  we  should  advise  him  to1 
carefully  study  the  starting  directions  given  by  each  maker  of 
motor  cars,  wherein  he  will  set  forth  the  general  course 
which  has  to  be  followed  in  starting  a  car. 

It  is  advisable  to  examine  the  whole  car  immediately  after 
a  run,  as  little  failures  are  then  fresh  in  the  mind.  Batteries 
might  be  tested,  tires  examined,  and  the  contents  of  the  tanks 
noted.  .  It  is  wise  to  leave  the  car  in  perfect  running  order,  as 
the  succeeding  trip  may  have  to  be  undertaken  hurriedly. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  the  articles  following  the 
tables  are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  This,  needless  to 
say,  does  not  represent  the  order  of  their  importance  or  the 
direction  in  which  trouble  should  first  be  looked  for  in  case  of 
faulty  running  or  stoppage.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
most  likely  source  of  the  trouble  will  be  found  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads,  which  we  have  arranged  in  order  of  importance : 

I.     Ignition.  6.     Overheating. 


1.  Ignition.  \  .  o.  Uverne; 

2.  Carburation.  7.  Knock. 

3.  Compression.  8.  Timing. 

4.  Lubrication.  9.  Valves. 

5.  Water   Circulation. 


8 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


TABLE  I.— SYMPTOMS  AND  CAUSES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


BACK  OR  TOO 
EARLY  FIRING 
(PRE  I  G  N 
TION) 


BLOW-BACK  OF 
GAS  INTO  CAR- 
B  U  R  E  T  E  R. 
POPPING 
NOISES 

BUZZ  IN  COIL 
(OTHER  THAN 
CONTACT 
BREAKER 
BUZZ) 

CLATTER  AND 
GRIND  IN 
GEAR  BOX. 

COMPRESSION, 
FAULTY. 

COMPRESSION, 
NONE. 

ENGINE  RUNS 
AFTER  CUR- 
RENT SWITCH- 
ED OFF 

EXPLOSIONS 


IRREGULAR  OR 
U  N  C  E  R  TAIN 
RUNNING 


Premature  firing  due  to  ignition  advanced  too  far, 
timing  wrong;  engine  overheated. — Excessive  lub- 
rication, causing  a  deposit  which  becomes  incan- 
descent.— Overheating  due  to  some  failure  in  the 
cooling  system. — Misfiring. — Switching  off  before 
throttling  off. 

Pitted  inlet  valve. — Grit  under  inlet  valve. — Broken 
inlet  valve. — Inlet  valve  stuck  up. — Broken  or  de- 
fective inlet  valve  spring. — Bad  carburation,  with 
ignition  too  much  retarded. — Faulty  timing. 

Short  circuit  in  coil  winding  or  connections. 


Gear  wheels  loose  or  worn.— Broken  gear  wheel. — 
Wear  in  operating  lever  and  link  joints. — Bear- 
ings loose  or  worn. — Ball  broken  in  bearing. 

Leakage  from  combustion  chamber.  (See  "Com- 
pression— Faulty,"  in  Table  II.) 

Breakage  of  valves,  piston  or  cylinder. 

Overheating. — Short  circuit. — Switch  defective. — De- 
posit of  burnt  oil,  which  becomes  incandescent. 


Short  circuits. — Misfires.— Battery  exhausted. — Soot- 
ed or  faulty  plug. — One  cylinder  not  working. — 
Bad  carburation. — Pitting  or  wrong  adjustment  of 
coil  trembler. 

Ignition— Intermittent  short  circuits. — Exhausted 
battery  recovering  after  halt. — Wires  broken  in- 

.  side  insulation,  with  ends  touching. — Contact 
maker  disk  grooved  or  worn. — Contact  blades 
worn. — Particles  of  metal  embedded  in  disk. 

Carburation — Dirt  or  water  in  carbureter. — Supply 
pipe  partially  choked. — Filter  choked. — Jet  in- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


KNOCK 


KNOCK  IN 
BEARINGS 
GEN  ERALLY 
OR  IN  TRANS 
MISSION  SYS- 
TEM 

LEAKS:  LOSS 
O  F  WATER, 
GASOLENE, 
OIL,  OR  AIR 

LOSS  OF  POW- 
ER CAUSING 
SLUGGISH 
RUNNING 


termittently  choked  by  floating  particles   of  for- 
eign matter. — Air-hole  in  gravity  feed  tank  stop- 
ped or  partially  stopped. 
Intermittent  lubrication — Failure  of  pump  or  belt. 

Ignition  advanced  too  much. — Faulty  timing. — Pre- 
mature ignition  from  sooty  deposit  becoming  in- 
candescent.— Short  circuit  in  contact-maker. — 
Overheated  engine. — Want  of  lubrication. — Un- 
suitable oil. — Something  loose  or  broken. — Con- 
necting rod  bearings  worn. — Loose  or  worn  piston 
pin. — Governor  weights  becoming  loose,  or  arms 
of  same  touching  some  portion  of  engine. — Water 
in  cylinder. — Loose  fly-wheel. — White  metal  lining 
of  bearings  melted  out. 

Worn  or  loose  bearings. — Bolts  of  gear  case  loose. 
— Joints  of  universal-jointed  shaft  loose  or  worn. 


Broken  pipes,  bad  joints. — Weak  springs  to  valves. 
(See  "Leaks,"  Table  II.) 


Ignition. — Short  circuits. — Battery  exhausted. — Coil 
defective. — Timing  wrong. — Sparking  plug  defec- 
tive.— Ends  of  plug  wires  too  far  apart  or  too 
close. — Contact  maker  disk  grooved  or  worn. — 
Contact  blades  worn,  bent,  or  not  making  proper 
contact — Fiber  disk  worn. — Distributer  dirty  or 
worn. 

Carburation. — Dirt  or  water  in  carbureter. — Float 
punctured. — Float  too  light,  or  lop-sided. — Supply 
pipe  choked  or  of  insufficient  bore. — Jet  choked, 
frozen,  or  of  insufficient  bore. — Filters  choked. — 
Stale  gasolene. — Needle  valve  spindle  bent  or 
worn. — Leak  of  pressure.  Pressure  valve  not  set 
properly,  or  sticking  (in  the  case  of  pressure 
feed). — Vacuum  in  supply  tank  through  closing  of 
air  inlet  (in  case  of  gravity  feed). 

Valves. — Dirty  or  pitted. — Springs  too  weak. — Tim- 


IO 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


METALLIC  OR 
PUFFING 
NOISES 

MISFIRES 
NOISE 

OVERHEATING 
PISTON    STICKS 
OR  SEIZES 

POPPING  NOISE 
PREIGNITION 

R  AC  I  N  G  O  F 
ENGINE 


R  E  S  I  STANCE 
SLIGHT  WHEN 
OPE  RATING 
STARTING 
HANDLE 

SMELLS 

START,  FAIL- 
URE  TO 


ing  wrong. — Valve  stem  bent. — Valve  stem  too 
long  or  too  short. — Dirt  under  seating. 

Bad  Circulation. — Air  lock. — Steam  bound.— Pump 
out  of  order. 

Bad  Compression. — Excessive  lubrication. — Want  of 
lubrication. — Overheating. — Piston  rings  defective. 
— Clutch  slipping. — Muffler  choked  through  over- 
lubrication. 

Joint  in  exhaust  pipe  loose  or  faulty. — Failure  of 
muffler. — Escape  of  compression  at  valves,  plugs, 
igniters,  or  rocking  levers. 

For  causes  see  "Misfires,"  Table  II. 
For  causes  see  "Noise,"  Table  II. 
For  causes  see  "Overheating,"  Table  II. 
Overheating,  generally  caused  by  faulty  lubrication. 
(See  "Overheating,"  in  Table  II.) 

See  "Blow  Back." 
See  "Back  Firing." 

Accelerator  or  throttle  wrongly  adjusted. — Gover- 
nor spring  too  strong. — Governor  hunting. — Clutch 
slipping. — Sparking  advanced  too  much,  and  en- 
gine too  much  accelerated  when  running  on  low 
speed. 

Loss  of  compression.  (See  "Compression — Faulty," 
in  Table  II.) 


Short  circuits. — Misfires. — Bad  carburation. — Over- 
heating.— Over-lubrication. 

Faulty  manipulation  of  starting  handle. — Ignition  or 
carburation  lever  in  wrong  position. 

Ignition. — Terminals  dirty  or  pitted. — Wires  short- 
ing.— Sparking  plug  defective. — Battery  run  down. 
— Coil  defective. — Contact  dirty  or  contact  maker 
out  of  order. — Distributer  dirty. — Switch  defective. 

Carburation. — Gasolene  not  turned  on. — Wrong  mix- 
ture.— Stale  gasolene  in  carbureter.— Dirt  in  pipes 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


II 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


STEERING 

ERRATIC 


STOPPAGE 
ENGINE 


OF 


WATER 

ESCAPES 


or  carbureter. — Carbureter  empty. — Jet  choked. — 
Excessive  cold. — Gasolene  in  tank  not  reaching 
exit. — Water  in  gasolene. — Throttle  lever  not  in 
best  position. 

Valves. — Gummy. — Springs  displaced. — Spring  of 
automatic  inlet  valve  too  strong. — Broken  exhaust 
valve  stem. — Exhaust  valve  stuck  up. 

Bad  Compression.  (See  "Compression — Faulty," 
in  Table  II.) 

Governor  out  of  order. 

Wheels  out  of  alignment.— (See  "Wheels,"  "Steer- 
ing," Table  II.) 

Ignition. — Battery  exhausted. — Wire  disconnected  or 
broken. — Sparking  plug  broken. 

Carburation. — Water  in  gasolene. — Supply  pipe 
choked. — Air  lock  in  supply  pipe. — Jet  choked. — 
Carbureter  filter  choked. — Mixture  faulty. — Gaso- 
lene not  turned  on. — Gasolene  exhausted. — Gaso- 
lene in  tank  not  reaching  exit. 

Valves. — Broken  or  displaced. — Springs  broken  or 
out  of  place. 

Engine. — Piston  seizes. — Connecting  rod  broken. 

Pipes  burst.— Connections  loose. — Leak  in  pipes. — 
Crack  in  water  jacket. — Leaky  radiator. 


12 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


TABLE    II.— FAILURES,    THEIR    SYMPTOMS    AND    CAUSES. 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


J      AIR    LOCK 


BACK,    OR    TOO 
EARLY    FIRING 

(P  R   E   I   G   N    I- 
TION) 


BATTERY 


BEARINGS 


BENT  AXLE 


Circulation  fails, 
and  engine  over- 
heats. 

Knocking  noise. 
— When  starting 
the  engine  it 
runs  backward* 
causing  starting 
handle  to  be 
violently  thrown 
back,  often  re- 
sulting in  in- 
juries to  the 
operator. 

Car  runs  slug- 
gishly and  jerk- 
ily.— Car  stops, 
but  runs  again 
on  being  re- 
started. —  Mis- 
fires. —  Explo- 
sions. 

Knock. —  Squeak. 
Jar.  — •  Shake. — 
Rattle.  —  Exces- 
sive heat.  — 
Bearings  seize. 

If  front  axle, 
steering  will  be- 
come erratic. — 
Whether  front 
or  back  axle 
wheels  will  get 
out  of  align- 
ment.— If  back 
axle,  grating 
noise  and 

wobbly      wheel. 


Air  in  water  pipes. 


Premature  firing  due  to  ignition 
being  advanced  too  far. — Timing 
wrong. — Engine  overheated. —  Ex- 
cessive lubrication,  causing  a  de- 
posit which  becomes  incandescent. 
— Overheating  due  to  failure  of 
some  part  of  'the  cooling  system. 


Battery  exhausted. — Short  circuit 
in  battery. — Bridge  piece  broken. 
— Nuts  not  screwed  home  or  cor- 
roded.— Terminals  dirty. 


Bearings  loose,  tight,  worn,  dry. — 
Worn  cones. — Broken  balls.^ 
Want  of  lubrication. — Grit  or 
metallic  matter  in  bearings. 

Sudden  strain  or  shock,  due  to 
sideslips,  skidding,  collision,  tak- 
ing a  culvert  at  speed,  driving 
with  one  wheel  in  a  deep  gutter 
or  rut. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


BLOWBACK 


BRAKES 


CARBURATION 


— Tires  wear 
badly. 

5opping  noise  in 
carbureter  or  in- 
let pipe. — Com- 
bination of  pop- 
ing noise  and 
explosion,  often 
accompanied  by 
flame  through 
air  pipe  of  car- 
bureter. 

!  n  e  ff  e  c  t  i  v  e. — 
Heat.  —  Jam- 
ming. —  Car 
shows  tendency 
to  slew  or  de- 
viate from  the 
running  line 
when  rear  brake 
is  applied.  — 
Pedal  brake  fails 
to  act  through 
insufficiency  of 
clearance  for 
pedal  move- 

ment. —  Failure 
of  certain  forms 
of  brake  liners 
— Brakes  fail  to 
entirely  come 
out  of  action 
when  released 
or  may  stick  in 
the  on  or  off 
position,  requir 
ing  considerabl 
effort  on  th 
lever  to  free. 

Engine  runs  slug 


as  blown  back  past  inlet  valve 
through  carbureter  from  follow- 
ing causes: — Pitted  inlet  valve. — • 
Grit  under  inlet  valve. — Broken 
inlet  valve. — Broken,  or  defective 
valve  spring. — Inlet  valve  stuck 
up. — Bad  carburation,  especially 
when  ignition  is  fully  retarded. — 
Faulty  timing. — Fully  retarded 
ignition  when  starting. — Back  fire 
at  starting. 

Grease  on  drum. — Actuating  rods 
and  levers  require  adjustment. — 
One  of  the  rear  brakes  acting, 
the  other  remaining  inoperative 
through  failure  in  compensating 
device. — Liners  want  redressing 
or,  in  the  case  of  metal  to  metal 
liners,  renewing. — Band  releasing 
movement  (spring  or  bell  crank- 
lever)  wants  readjusting. — In  the 
case  of  toggle  arms,  undue  play 
at  points  or  distortion  of  one  or 
other  of  the  arm  movements. — 
Take-off  spring  weak  or  broken. 
— Circle  of  brake  block  and  shoe 
smaller  than  the  drum,  so  that 
the  front  point  of  block  engages 
first. 


Gasolene  supply  at  fault,  caused  by 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


CHAIN   BROKEN 


CHANGE  SPEED 
GEAR 


gishly  on  level  presence  of  dirt  in  carbureter 
or  on  an  up  gra-  base,  filters,  or  in  feed  pipe  from 
dient,  but  picks  gasolene  tank;  by  the  jet  being 
up  on  a  down  frozen,  choked,  or  the  aperture 
grade.  —  Un-  incorrect;  gasolene  level  too  high 
steady  running,  or  too  low;  carbureter  frozen;  air 
—  Misfires.  —  lock  in  gasolene  tank;  too  much 
Popping.  —  Ex-  pressure  in  pressure  feed  tank; 
plosions.  —  Un-  bent  needle  valve  stem,  and 
due  smell.  partially  jammed  needle  valve  or 

a  leakage  past  same  when  seated; 
punctured  float,  improperly  or  un- 
evenly weighted  float. — Water  in 
gasolene. — Too  weak  mixture. — 
Sluggish  or  partially  inoperative 
inlet  valve  (in  the  case  of  an  auto- 
matically operated  one). — Insuffi- 
cient vaporization  when  starting 
in  very  cold  weather. — Improperly 
adjusted  automatic  air  valve. — 
Tank  empty  or  nearly  empty. — 
Stale  gasolene. — Insufficient  sup- 
ply of  hot  air. 

"ham  too  loose,  too  tight,  or 
clogged  with  mud. — Stone  or 
other  foreign  matter  gets  between 
chain  and  sprocket. — Broken  or 
distorted  spring  causing  sprockets 
to  get  out  of  line  and  chain  to 
mount  the  teeth. — Lack  of  proper 
lubrication. — Sprockets  or  chains 
worn. 

intering  edges  of  change  speed 
wheels  becoming  too  rounded  by 
excessive  rubbing  when  speed 
changing. — Teeth  too  deeply  in 
mesh. — Excessive  play  in  bear- 
ings, due  to  wear  or  want  of  ad- 
justment.— Clutch  forks  or  gear 
shafts  distorted  or  twisted  (the 
latter  is  of  rare  occurrence). — 


uar      stops. 
Harsh  noises. 


Change  speed 
wheels  fail  to 
remain  in  mesh. 
—  Teeth  of 
wheels  "bottom- 
ing." —  General 
noise  at  gear 
box  and  loss  of 
power  through 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


CLUTCH 


\J    COIL 


increased      fric 
tion. 


COMPRESSION 
—FAULTY 


Engine  runs  fast 
though  car 
travels  slowly 
through  clutch 
slipping.  — 
Clutch  bites 
fiercely  or  jerk- 
ily. —  Will  not 
engage  or  come 
out  of  engage- 
ment. 

Tinny    or    inter 
mittent   buzz   at 
contact    breaker 
different       from 
usual  full  note. 
Jnusual  buzz  in- 
side coil. 


Engine  loses 
power,  and  very 
little  resistance 
shown  when 
starting  handle 
is  turned. — Hiss- 
ing sound.  ~ 
Slow  to  start. — 
M  i  s  fi  r  e  s.  — 
Overheating  (if 


Actuating  mechanism  requiring 
adjustment  or  repair.  —  Gear 
wheels  overhanging  through  lost 
motion  in  the  connections. — Teeth 
broken  or  worn. — Gear  wheels 
which  are  not  in  use  grinding 
against  each  other. — Change  speed 
lever  or  its  shaft  jamming  or  be- 
coming strained.  —  Gear  lever 
quadrant  bent  so  as  to  jam  or 
bind  gear  lever. 

Slipping  through  oil  on  bearing 
surfaces  or  weak  spring.— Fierce 
or  jerky  through  leather  hard  and 
dry,  worn,  or  through  protruding 
rivets. — Jammed. — Wrong  adjust- 
ment.— Insufficient  play  for  clutch 
pedal. — Clutch  remains  slightly  in 
contact  when  pedal  is  operated 
through  being  swollen. — In  case 
of  disk  clutch,  want  of  lubricant. 
— Improper  lubricant. 

Pitting  of  trembler  contacts. — 
Wrong  adjustment. — Loose  plati- 
nums.— Trembler  blade  too  stiff 
or  not  springy  enough. — Points 
made  of  inferior  alloys. — Failure 
of  condenser. — Defect  in  insula- 
tion of  connections. — Loose  or 
dirty  terminals. — Failure  of  In- 
sulation inside  coil. 

Escape  of  compressed  mixture 
from  combustion  chamber  from 
following  causes: — Valve  pitted. 
— Valve  stuck  in  guide. — Valve 
spindle  bent. — Valves  freshly 
ground. — Bad  joint  between  the 
seat  of  inlet  valve  and  combus- 
tion chamber. — Cracks  in  cylinder 
walls.— Too  thin  lubricating  oil. — 
Slots  in  piston  rings  coinciding 


i6 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


pressure  escap- 
ing into  base 
chamber). 


COMPRESSION 
—NONE 


CONNECT 
ING      ROD      OR 
CRANKSHAFT 
BROKEN 


Handle       turns 
freely. 


Knock  in  case  of 
cranks  haft. 
— Sudden  stop- 
p  a  g  e,  accom- 
panied by  loud 
clanging  noise 
in  cylinder  and 
crank  case. 


C  O   N  T  A  C  T]Short 
BREAKER 
(High      Tension 
Magneto) 


circuit. — 
Weak  or  uneven 
running. 


CONTACT 
BREAKER 

( Low  Tension 
Magneto) 

CONTACT 

MAKER   ... 


Short  circuit. — 
Weak  or  uneven 
running. 

Sparking  at  plat- 
inum points. — 
Misfires.  —  Loss 
of  power. 


with  each  other,  or  rings  partly 
sticking  in  grooves. — Worn  rings. 
— Broken  rings. — Valve  spindles 
too  long  or  spring  too  weak. — 
Sparking  plugs  cracked  or  broken. 
— Gland  nut  loose. — Escape  be- 
tween core  and  metal. — Washer 
faulty. — Compression  cock  open 
or  leaking. 

In  low  tension  magneto  ignition 
escape  of  pressure  at  rocking 
lever  of  igniter. 

Inlet  or  exhaust  valve  either  stuck 
up  or  broken. — Cracked  cylinder. 
— Cracked  piston  head. — Broken 
connecting  rod. 

Preignition.  —  Cylinders  firing 
against  each  other. — Laboring  on 
hills. — Severe  shock  as  when 
clutch  is  let  in  suddenly. — Piston 
seizing  for  want  of  lubrication,  or 
through  stoppage  of  water  circu- 
lation.— Brakes  applied  forcibly 
with  clutch  in  engagement. 

Contact  blades  dirty,  pitted,  worn, 
or  of  inferior  alloy. — Blades 
wrongly  adjusted.  —  Terminals 
dirty  or  loose. — Appliance  gen- 
erally dirty. 

Timing  wrong,  due  to  faulty  ad- 
justment.— Springs  too  weak, 
broken,  or  of  uneven  tension. — 
Deposit  due  to  burnt  oil. 

Contact  blades  needing  adjust- 
ment.— Timing  wrong. — Fiber  and 
brass  segments  grooved  by  wear. 
— Brass  segments  worn  below  sur- 
face of  fiber,  causing  contact 
blades  to  jump. — Fiber  worn  be- 
low segments. — Bearing  surface 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


CYLINDERS 


DIFFERENTIAL 


DISTRIBUTER 


SYMPTOMS. 


ENGINE    STOPS 
FLARE  UP 


GEAR 


GOVERNOR 


Knock. — Loss  o 
power. —  Engin 
weakens. —  Mis 
fires. — Escape  o 
water. 


Grating  noise 


Short  circuit 


Car  stops 
Flame 


Difficulty  in 
changing.  — 
Noises. —  Break- 
age. 


Engine     races, 
cuts      out      too 


CAUSES. 


of  blade  worn  and  not  making 
even  contact. — Contact  blade  too 
stiff,  or  not  making  firm  enough 
contact. — In  roller  type — spring 
too  weak. — Presence  of  oil  or  dirt 
either  on  contact  maker  or  be- 
tween contact  maker  and  its 
shaft. — Cam  loose  on  its  shaft. 
Crack  in  cylinder  or  water  jacket. 
— Warped  head,  due  to  abnormal 
heating  following  on  failure  of 
the  water  circulation. — Porous 
head. — Blowholes  in  cylinder  cast- 
ing.— Scoring  of  cylinder  by  ends 
of  a  loose  piston  pin. 

Teeth  of  pinions  or  driving  bevels 
stripped. — Shaft  bearings  want  ad- 
justment.— Road  wheels  require 
adjustment. 

Particles  of  metal  embedded  in 
disk. — Segments  worn. — Brushes 
worn,  broken  or  needing  adjust- 
ment.— Wet  or  mud  in  case. — 
Platinum  points  (where  such  are 
used)  pitted,  worn  or  needing  ad- 
justment.— Connections  faulty. 

See  "Stoppage  of  Engine"  in  Table 

.oose  pipe  connections. — Leaking 
pipes.  —  Flooded  carbureter. — 
Gasolene  about  base  of  engine. — 
Gasolene  on  footboard. — Blow- 
back  through  carbureter. 

A^orn  or  loose  bearings. — Gear 
case  loosening. — Gear  wheel  loose. 
Wear  in  gear-operating  connec- 
tions.— Broken  tooth  or  loose  nut 
in  gear  box. — Broken  ball  in  bear- 
ing. 

prings  too  strong,  too  weak,  or 
broken. — Arms  carrying  govern- 


i8 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


HUNTING 


IGNITION 


KNOCK 


soon  or  stops. — 
Runs  alternately 
fast  and  slow,  or 
"hunts." —  Sud- 
denly a  c  c  e  1  e- 
rates — Difficulty 
in  keeping  en- 
gine running  at 
constant  speeds. 
— Engine  runs 
"d  e  a  d,"  and 
picks  up  badly 
— Loss  of  power, 

Uneven  action  of 
governor,  caus- 
ing the  engine 
under  certain 
circumstances  to 
slow  up  and  in- 
crease its  speed 
at  regular  inter- 
vals. 

Car  moves  slug- 
gishly and  jerk- 
ily.—  Sometimes 
stops. — Misfires. 
—Smells.  —  Ex- 
plosions.  — 
Knock. 

An  unusual  noise 
in  the  cylinder 
like  a  knock  or 
tap. 


ing  weights  sticking. — Governor 
"hunts." — Toggles  or  the  sliding 
sleeve  and  grooved  collar  which 
communicates  motion  to  the 
throttle  operating  mechanism 
sticking. — Backlash  and  bad  ad- 
justment of  operating  rods  and 
mechanism. 


Wrong  adjustment  of  actuating 
links  and  rods. — Wrong  adjust- 
ment of  butterfly  valve. 


Short  .circuits. — "Faulty  sparking 
plug,  coil,  or  wires,  contact  maker 
or  breaker,  distributer,  switch, 
battery  run  down. — Timing. — 
Overheating. 


Ignition  advanced  too  much. — 
Faulty  timing. — Preigniticn  from 
sooty  deposit  becoming  incandes- 
cent.— Short  circuit  in  contact 
maker.  —  Overheated  engine. — 
Want  of  lubrication. — Unsuitable 
oil. — Something  loose  or  broken. 
— Connecting  rod  bearings  worn. 
— Loose  or  worn  piston  pin. — 
Governor  weights  becoming  loose 
or  arms  of  same  touching  some 
portion  of  engine. — Water  in 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


LEAKS  IN  GAS 
OLENE  SUP 
PLY,  WATER 
OIL  OR  AIR 


LOSS  OF  POW 
ER  OR  SLUG 
GISHNESS 


LUBRICATION 


MISFIRES 


Rapid  falling  of 
gasolene  in  tank 

— F  a  i  1  u  r  e  of 
gasolene  to 
reach  carbureter. 
— Engine  over- 
heats.— Bearings 
hot.  —  Loss  of 
power.  —  Slug- 
gishness. 

Car  runs  slug- 
gishly. —  Slow 
pace. —  Misfires. 
—  Explosions. — 
Smells. 

Overheating.  — 
Car  runs  slug- 
gishly. —  M  i  s- 
fires. — Sraells.— 
Piston  sticks  or 
seizes.  —  Bear- 
ings seize  or  be- 
come scored. — 
Smoke  from  ex- 
haust. —  Noise 
and  heat. — Worn 
bearings.  — 
Warm  bearings. 

Car  runs  slug- 
gishly and  jerk- 
ily. —  Smells.— 
Explosions.  — 
Plug  sooted.  — 
Valve  stuck. 


cylinder. — Loose  flywheel. — White 
metal  lining  to  bearings  melted 
out. 

In  gravity  feed  carbureters  leak- 
age in  supply  pipe  or  shaking 
loose  of  bottom  cover  of  strainer. 
— In  pressure  feed  carbureters 
leakage  of  air  pressure  in  air 
pipe  of  exhaust,  or  from  tank. — 
Leakage  of  water  from  circula- 
tion system. — Leakage  of  oil. — 
Oil  relief  valve  not  working. — > 
Air  relief  valve  not  working. 

For  causes  see  "Loss  of  Power"  in 
Table  I. 


Forgetfulness. — The  use  of  bad 
quality  or  improper  oil,  or  de- 
fective lubrication  system. — Pipe 
choked  with  foreign  matter. — • 
Relief  valve  not  working. — Spring 
of  relief  valve  too  weak. — Oil 
pump  spindle  sheared. — Oil  pump 
drive  broken. — Too  much  oil. — 
Derangement  of  drip  feed  device. 
— Particles  of  metal  in  the  oil. — 
Unsuitable  lubricant. 


[gnition: — Short  circuits  in  wiring, 
terminals,  plug,  switch,  distributer 
or  battery. — Battery  run  down. — 
Coil  defective.-^-Dirty  or  faulty 
plug. — Contact  maker  blades  not 
making  firm  contact  or  vibrating 
too  slowly. — Brass  segment  in 
disk  scored  or  worn. — Fiber  swol- 
len.— Terminals  loose  or  dirty. 


20 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


MUFFLER 

TROUBLES 


Explosions.        — 
Excessive  rattle. 


NOISE 


Noise.    —  Knock 
or  Pound 


Grating  noise 

Rattling  noises 

Atmospheric 

noises. 


In  low  tension  magneto  ignition, 
contact  arm  wrongly  adjusted. — 
Broken  or  weak  spring  on  striker 
arm. — Short  in  igniter  or  wires. — 
Faulty  switch.  In  h.  t.  magneto, 
short  in  wires  or  switch,  contact 
breaker  or  distributer. 

Carburation: — Dirt  or  water  in  car- 
bureter.— Insufficient  charge. — Jet 
choked,  of  insufficient  bore,  or 
frozen.  —  Filter  choked. — Stale 
gasolene.  —  Float  punctured.  — 
Valve  spindle  bent  or  worn. — 
Leakage  of  pressure,  pressure 
valve  not  set  properly  or  stick- 
ing (in  the  case  of  pressure  feed). 
— Vacuum  in  supply  tank  through 
want  of  air  inlet  (in  case  of  grav- 
ity feed). — Insufficient  supply  of 
hot  air. 

Misfires  through  short  circuits. — 
Insufficiency  of  current  or  wrong 
adjustment  of  coil  tremblers,  etc. 
— Sudden  switching  off  and  on  of 
current. — Sooted  plug. — Bad  car- 
buration. — Muffler  choked. — Plates 
inside  loose. 

Knocking  due  to  looseness  in  con- 
nections of  reciprocating  parts 
and  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  the  engine.  (Dealt  with  fully 
under  "Knock.") 

Insufficient  lubrication. — Bad  fit- 
ting. 

Small  parts  and  connections  loose. 

Bad  joints  in  air,  gas,  or  exhaust 
pipes. — Bad  joints  between  plugs 
and  cylinder  walls. — Bad  joints 
between  valve  caps  and  cylinders. 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


21 


FAILURE. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


NUTS  AND 
BOLTS 


OVERHEATING 


Parts  become 
loose  and  rattle 
and  nuts  shake 
off  altogether. — 
Difficulty  in  .re- 
moving nuts  and 
bolts. 

Smell  of  burning. 
— Slight  smoke. 
— Knock.  —  Car 
gradually  slows, 
and  finally  stops. 
—  Sometimes 
will  fire  after 
current  turned 
off.  —  P  iston 
seizes  (rarely). 
—Water  steams. 


PIPES    BURST 
OP  FRACTURED 


PINION    LOOSE 


Water  escapes. — 
Engine  o  v  e  r- 
heats,  and  if  not 
stopped  at  once 
p  is  ton  may 
seize. 

Unusual  noise.  — 
Grind.  —  Diffi- 
culty in  chang- 
ing gear. — Even- 
tual break  up  of 
gear.  —  Noise. — 


— Leaky  compression  taps  or  their 
joints. 

Improperly  tightening. — Neglect  to 
use  grease  or  other  lubricant  iff 
assembling. — Screwing  nut  or 
sideways. — Omission  of  split  pins 


Defect  in  water  circulation.— 
Choked  or  ineffective  radiator.— 
Choked  waterpipes. — Pump  out 
of  order. — Escape  of  water. — Air 
lock. — Steam  bound. — Continuous 
hill  climbing  at  a  slow  pace,  es- 
pecially when  there  is  a  tail  wind. 
— Insufficient  lubrication. — Unsuit- 
able oil. — Faulty  carburation. — 
Running  continuously  with  one 
cylinder  misfiring. — Laboring  on 
hills. — Ignition  retarded  too  much. 
— Running  engine  too  fast. — Es* 
cape  of  compression  into  base 
chamber  through  defective  piston 
rings  or  worn  cylinders. — Escape 
through  bad  joint  between  seat  of 
valve  and  combustion  chamber. — 
Insufficient  lift  of  exhaust  valves. 
— Slipping  clutch. 

Water    freezing.    —    Connections 
loose. — Vibration. 


Loosening  of  nuts  securing  gear 
rings. — Broken  tooth  or  portion 
of  tooth  due  to  faulty  changing 
or  letting  in  clutch  too  suddenly. 
— Backlash  in,  or  faulty  adjust- 
ment of  operating  mechanism. 


22 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


PINION 

BROKEN 


PISTON 

TROUBLES 


POPPING      IN 
CARBURETER 


D  i  ffi  cu 1 1  y  in 
changing.  — 
Eventual  1  o  c  Ic- 
ing of  gear. 

Loss  of  compres- 
sion. —  Scoring 
of  cylinder 
walls. 

Knock.  — Gradual 
weakening  .  and 
eventual  s  t  o  p- 
page  of  engine. 

Loss  of  power. — 
Popping  noise. 
— Flame  about 
carbureter  i  n 
some  cases. 


PRESSURE 
LEAKING  (in 
case  of  pressure 
feed) 


PREMATURE  OR 
PREIGNITION 
SHORT 

CIRCUITS 


Engine  runs  slug- 
gishly, and  stops 
if  pressure  fails 
altogether. 

Overheating. 


Knock 

Car  moves  slug- 
gishly and  jerk- 
ily. —  Misfires. — 
Explosions.  — 
Car  stops. 


Rings  stuck  with  gummy  deposit. — 
Rings  worn  or  broken. — Slots 
coinciding  with  each  other. — 
Rings  bad  fit. 

Insufficient  lubrication.  —  Unsuit- 
able    oil. — Overheating. — Preigni- 
tion,  resulting  from  sooty  deposit 
and  causing  overheating. 
Carbureter  flooded.  —  Carbureter 
starved. — Inlet  valve  spring  weak. 
— Valve    sticking    open,    opening 
too   much   or   pitted. — Ignition   of 
gas  in  inlet  pipe. — Ignition  retard- 
ed too  much  in  combination  with 
weak  mixture. — Back  fire  at  start- 
ing.    (See  "Blowback,"  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages.) 

Leakage  in  gasolene  pipes. — Leak- 
age at  top  of  oil  cylinder. — Pres- 
sure valve  out  of  order  or  filter 
choked. — Oil  cylinder  empty. — 
Leakage  at  cap  of  gasolene  tank. 
— Pressure  pipe  from  exhaust 
choked. 

See  "Back,  or  Too  Early  Firing." 

Loose  wires. — Dirty  contacts. — Bad 
insulation. — Battery  terminals  cor- 
roded, dirty,  or  bridge  joining 
terminals  broken. — Spanner,  wet 
cloth  or  such-like  across  poles  of 
battery. — Wrong  adjustment  or 
dirt  in  contact  maker,  or  distri- 
buter.— Disks  of  same  worn, 
grooved,  fouled  with  thick  oil,  or 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


SPARK  PLUG 


Short  circuits. — 
Misfires.  —  En- 
gine stops,  or 
won't  start 


STEAM     BOUND 
OR   AIR   LOCK 

STEERING 


Overheating. 


Steering  stiff  or 
jerky.  —  Driver 
loses  control. — 
C  o  n  s  i  d  e  rable 
backlash  be- 
tween steering 
wheel  and  road 
wheels. 


dry  and  gritty. — Sparking  plug 
broken,  points  too  far  apart, 
touching,  or  bad  contact  between 
shell  of  plug  and  metals  of  motor. 
— Moisture  on  porcelain  of  spark- 
ing plug,  wires,  terminals  of  con- 
tact maker,  distributer,  or  on  coil. 
— Burnt  contacts. — Loose  plati- 
num on  contact  blades  or  coil 
tremblers. — Oil  on  contacts. 

In  magneto  ignition,  shorts  may 
occur  in  the  wiring,  terminals, 
plugs,  igniters,  switch,  contact 
breaker,  or  distributer. 

Unsuitable  spark  plug. — Moisture 
on  insulating  core  or  points. — 
Core  cracked  or  loose. — Points 
touching,  or  too  far  apart. — Points 
sooted. — Porcelain  or  mica  of  core 
sooted. — Wire  loose  on  terminal. 
— Plug  too  long  or  too  short. — 
Escape  of  compression  at  packing 
gland. — Oil  or  water  on  base  of 
porcelain  or  between  sparking 
points. — Bad  contact  between 
shell  of  plug  and  metal  of  engine. 

Accumulation  of  steam  or  air  in 
pipes  and  radiator  which  prevents 

,  free  circulation. 

Unpinned  bolt  drops  out  of  steer- 
ing link. — Ball  of  ball  joint  comes 
adrift  through  wear  or  lack  of  ad- 
justment.— Link,  or  a  steering 
arm  breaks. — Bent  steering  link. — 
Want  of  lubrication. — Backlash 
due  to  wear  in  worm  and  sector. 
— Wear  in  joints  of  adjusting 
levers  or  in  the  front  axle  jaws 
or  swivel  pins. — Worn  or  loose 
bearings. — Steering  wheels  out  of 
alignment. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


SUPPLY  P  I 
CHOKED 


TIMING 


P  E 


TIRES 


Sluggish  and  in- 
termittent run- 
ning. —  Engine 
stops. — Misfires. 

Knock. — Loss  of 
power.  —  Over- 
heating. —  Ir- 
regular firing. — 
Harsh  running. 


Puncture    of    air 
tube. 


Boil  on  casing. 


Burst 


Dirt  in  pipe. — Filter  choked. 


Badly  worn  crankshaft  and  con- 
necting rod  bearings. — Preigni- 
tion  owing  to  incorrect  timing  of 
contact  maker  or  contact  breaker. 
— Exhaust  valve  out  of  time,  or 
insufficient  lift,  due  to  wear  of 
stem  and  tappet,  or  to  wrong 
setting  of  camshaft  gear  wheel. — 
Mechanical  inlet  valve  out  of 
time,  or  insufficient  lift. — Auto- 
matic inlet  valve  spring  too  strong 
or  too  strongly  adjusted  or  too 
weak  owing  to  fatigue. — Wear  of 
valve  cams. — Cams,  or  gear 
wheels  loose  on  cam  shaft. — Gear 
wheels  worn,  or  wrongly  meshed. 
— Valve  spindle  in  contact  with 
tappet  owing  to  constant  grind- 
ing.— Strained  crankshaft  putting 
crank  pins  out  of  line. — Too  much 
"lead"  given  to  low  tension  igni- 
tion gear,  causing  premature  igni- 
tion.— Cylinders  out  of  synchron- 
ism owing  to  wear  in  magneto 
tappet  gear.  (See  "Timing,"  in  fol- 
lowing pages.) 

Nails.— Pieces  of  metal.— Sharp 
stones. — Air  tube  nipped  under 
bead  or  security  bolt. — Security 
bolt  defective  or  bent. — Air  tube 
frayed  by  faulty  patch  on  casing. 

Gradual  failure  of  fabric  due  to 
split  formed  inside  by  flexion,  or 
moisture  penetrating  neglected 
cut  in  rubber. 

Neglect  to   repair   boil   in   time. — 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


VALVES 


VALVE 


SPRINGS 


WATER       IN 

CRANK 
CHAMBER 


WATER  IN  CAR 
BURSTER 


WATER    CIRCU 
LATION 


Clean  longitud- 
inal cut  inside 
casing. 


Misfires.  —  Slug- 
gish running.  — 
Explosions.  — 
Popping. —  Loss 
of  compression. 
— Car-  stops.  — 
Engine  fails  to 
start. 

Irregular  action 
of  valves.  — 
Total  failure.  — 
Car  stops. 

Water  appears  in 


oil   when 
off. 


drawn 


'  a  r  sluggish, 
sometimes  stops. 
—  Misfires.  — 
Explosions. 
Overheating.  — 
Sluggish  r  u  n- 
ning. — Steam. 


Security    bolts     not     tightened. — 
Fabric  completely  worn  out. 

Excessive  flexion  due  to  tires  not 
being  pumped  hard  enough  or  to 
faulty  construction,  causing  un- 
even strain  on  strands  of  fabric 
in  one  particular  spot. 

Sooty  or  gummy  deposit. — Spindle 
bent  or  broken. — Valve  pitted  or 
warped. — Spring  too  strong,  too 
weak,  out  of  place  or  broken. — 
Springs  in  different  cylinders  of 
irregular  tension. — Too  little  or 
too  much  clearance  between  stem 
and  plunger. — Valve  stuck. — Valve 
broken. 

Springs  Broken.  —  Twisted.  — 
Jammed.  —  Too  strong.  —  Too 
weak. —  Unequal  tension  in  multi- 
cylinder  engine  (only  in  cases  of 
automatically  operated  valves). 

Leaky  joints.  —  Porous  head.  — 
Crack  in  water  jacket. — Water  in 
gasolene. — Water  gets  in  when 

washing  car.     (See  "Cylinders,"  in 

the  following  pages.) 

Water  condensing  in  tank  or  car- 
bureter.— Also  gets  in  with  gaso- 
lene.— Want  of  care  in  washing 
or  protection  from  rain. 

Pump: — Defective.  —  Broken.  — 
Spindle  locked  and  friction  wheel 
not  working  or  slipping. — Chain 
broken  or  come  off  (in  chain 
drive). — Worn  washers,  valves  or 
bearings.  —  Swollen  washers.  — 
Grease  in  pump. — Frozen  pump. 

Pipes: — Choked.  —  Broken.  — 
Leaking. — Air  bound  or  steam 
bound. 


26 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


FAILURES. 


SYMPTOMS. 


CAUSES. 


WHEELS 


Wheels  out  of 
alignment.  — 
Looseness  o  r 
creak  in  spokes. 
— Faulty  steer- 
ing. —  Tires 
scored  transver- 
sely.— Car  runs 
sideways.  —  Car 
steers  erratical- 

ly. 


Radiator: — Grease  or  other  deposit. 
— Mud  in  gills. — Improper  pro- 
portion between  the  amount  of 
water  and  the  cooling  surface  of 
radiator. 

Fan: — Belt    slipping    or    breaking. 

Water  Jacket:— Leaks. — Deposit. — 
Scale. 

Bent  car  axle,  stub  axle  on  which 
wheels  revolve,  steering  link,  or 
steering  arms. — Spoke  broken, 
cracked,  shrunk,  decayed,  loose  in 
hub. — Hub  shaky. — Bearings  worn 
or  loose. — Wrong  adjustment  of 
axles  in  chain  drive. — Axle  shifted 
endways  on  springs. — Front  and 
rear  wheels  out  of  alignment. — 
Springs  shifted  across  axle. 


N.  B. — The  remedies  for  all  the  troubles  indicated  in  the  above 
tables  are  given  in  the  series  of  articles  which  follow,  the  subjects 
being  arranged  in  alphabetical  order. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  27 


BACK  FIRING, 

Symptoms:  When  starting  the  engine  it  rotates  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  in  which  it  should  revolve,  and  causes  starting 
handle  to  be  violently  thrown  back,  which  possibly  causes  injury 
to  the  operator. — Explosions  -in  the  exhaust  are  sometimes  known 
as  back  fires. 

Causes:  Wrong  timing  of  ignition. — Preignition,  due  to  incandes- 
cent carbon  deposit. — Overheating,  due  to  failure  of  some  part  of 
cooling  apparatus. — Misfiring. — Switching  off  before  throttling  off. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  this  is  caused  through  the  ignition 
taking  place  too  early.  The  ignition  should  always  be  re- 
tarded when  starting  the  engine,  owing  to  the  low  speed  at 
which  the  crankshaft  is  turned  in  starting.  In  some  cases,  an 
automatic  arrangement  is  used  to  insure  the  retarding  of  the 
ignition  when  the  starting  handle  is  put  into  engagement  with 
the  engine  shaft.  Where  such  is  fitted' it  is  not  well  to  rely  on 
it  too  implicitly  as,  if  it  becomes  deranged,  or  if  the  starting 
handle  is  not  pushed  fully  home  on  the  crankshaft,  a  bad  back 
fire  may  result,  with  possible  injury  to  the  operator.  A  back 
fire  may  also  be  caused  by  defective  connections  in  the  igni- 
tion wiring  causing  the  spark  to  be  passed  at  the  wrong  time, 
or  by  excessive  overheating  of  the  engine  due  to  some  derange- 
ment of  the  water  circulating  system,  such  as  a  lack  of  water, 
failure  of  the  pump  to  act  efficiently,  or  the  fan  belt  coming 
off.  Heavy  deposits  of  carbon  in  the  cylinder,  combustion 
chamber,  and  on  the  head  of  the  piston  may,  if  the  engine  is 
allowed  to  become  overheated,  become  incandescent,  and  will 
fire  the  charge  before  the  end  of  the  compression  stroke.  The 
remedy,  of  course,  is  the  thorough  cleansing  of  the  cylinder 
and  piston.  This  state  of  affairs  is  often  due  to  excessive  lub- 
rication. See  reference  under  "Overheating"  and  "Cylinders" 
in  the  following  pages. 

Popping  in  the  carbureter,  which  is  sometimes  erroneously 
referred  to  as  backfiring,  is  invariably  accompanied  by  misfir- 
ing. See  "Misfiring"  and  "Blowback"  in  the  articles  that 
follow. 


28  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Explosions  in  the  exhaust  pipe  and  muffler,  often  called  back- 
fires, are,  in  nearly  all  cases,  due  to  misfiring — the  engine 
sucking  in  and  expelling  the  charge  of  combustible  gas 
through  the  exhaust  pipes  into  the  muffler,  where  it  is  ignited 
by  the  flame  of  the  next  exhaust  stroke.  See  "Muffler  Trou- 
bles." 

In  some  cases,  where  the  engine  has  been  allowed  to  stand 
and  is  restarted,  firing  will  take  place  in  the  muffler.  This 
may  be  due  to  switching  off  the  current  before  closing  the 
throttle.  The  result  is  that  the  exhaust  pipes  and  muffler  are 
supplied  with  a  mixture  of  combustible  gas,  and  on  restarting 
the  engine,  as  soon  as  the  flames  reach  the  exhaust  pipe  or 
muffler,  they  ignite  these  gases  which  have  been  left  behind. 
There  is  no  danger  with  a  muffler  explosion  of  this  descrip- 
tion. Four-cylinder  engines  can  often  be  started  again  by 
means  of  the  switch  without  turning  the  starting  handle,  pro- 
vided the  driver  switches  off  before  closing  the  throttle. 

BEARINGS. 

Symptoms:  Grinding,  grating,  knocking,  or  squeaking  noise.— 
Heat. — Side  shake. — Bearing  tight  at  one  side  and  loose  at  another. 
— In  extreme  cases  bearings  will  seize. 

Causes:  Want  of  lubrication. — Wear. — Want  of  adjustment. — 
Broken  balls. — Grit  in  bearings. 

Roller  bearings,  ball  bearings,  plain,  and  anti-friction  lined 
gunmetal  bearings  are  the  four  kinds  chiefly  used  in  motor 
cars. 

All  must  be  kept  well  lubricated,  clean,  and  properly  ad- 
justed. Lubrication  is  very  important,  and,  except  for  the 
waste  of  oil,  too  much  cannot  be  used,  except,  of  course,  in 
the  engine.  But,  in  addition  to  this,  all  grit  must  be  removed 
not  only  from  the  bearing  itself,  but  also  from  any  place  from 
which  it  can  reach  the  bearing,  otherwise  lubrication  will  not 
save  the  bearing  from  wearing.  Plain  bearings  can  be  run  in 
a  more  defective  condition  than  either  of  the  others,  as  they 
will  not  show  their  condition  so  quickly,  and  for  this  reason 
are  not  as  constantly  examined  as  they  should  be.  If  a  bear- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  29 

ing  shows  any  scores  or  ribs,  both  shaft  and  bearing  must  be 
refitted,  but  this  is  a  job  that  should  not  be  undertaken  rashly, 
as  it  requires  much  experience  to  do  it  properly.  Besides 
cleaning  and  lubricating,  it  is  advisable  to  feel  all  the  bearings 
occasionally  to  make  sure  that  they  are  properly  adjusted. 

The  bearings  of  a  new  car  are  apt  to  get  hot  at  first,  and 
in  extreme  cases  may  even  seize.  They  should,  therefore,  be 
felt  at  frequent  intervals,  and,  if  distinctly  warm,  should  be 
freely  lubricated,  and,  if  necessary,  re-adjusted. 

If  the  bearings  are  not  properly  lubricated,  as  already  point- 
ed out,  they  will  wear  rapidly,  and  probably  seize.  Even  with 
the  best  treatment,  however,  there  is  sure  to  be  a  certain 
amount  of  wear,  and  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  this  should 
be  taken  up  at  once.  In  extreme  cases  the  bearings  may  re- 
quire rebushing. 

Wear  can  be  taken  up  in  plain  bearings  by  taking  out  the 
brasses  and  filing  the  two  adjoining  faces  so  as  to  make  them 
a  closer  fit  to  the  journal.  In  this  case,  however,  they  will 
have  to  be  scraped  to  a  true  fit — a  job  which  can  only  be  pro- 
perly carried  out  by  an  experienced  fitter.  Very  little  trouble 
is  given  by  broken  balls  on  modern  cars,  and,  generally  speak- 
ing, ball  bearings  will  last  as  long  as  the  car.  Should  any 
wear  or  damage  occur,  however,  the  ball  bearing  should  be 
replaced  with  an  entirely  new  set  of  races  and  balls.  In  the 
case  of  wheels,  ball  races  which  have  worn  unevenly  will  re- 
sult in  the'  wheel  becoming  tight  in  one  place  and  slack  in 
another.  The  proper  remedy  is  a  new  cone  or  cup,  as  the  case 
may  be.  In  all  cases  the  balls  should  be  of  exactly  the  same 
size,  and  it  is  better  in  replacing  balls  to  use  a  complete  new 
set,  of  a  known  make  and  taken  from  one  lot,  than  to  replace 
by  odd  balls  which  may  be  very  slightly  smaller  or  larger. 
If  one  ball  is  larger  than  the  rest,  even  by  the  thousandth  part 
of  an  inch,  the  ball  races  will  be  rapidly  worn  away  with  the 
hammering.  To  preserve  plain  bearings  in  proper  condition, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  kept  tight  and  well  lubri- 
cated, proper  lubrication  having  more  to  do  with  the  life  of  a 
plain  bearing  than  any  other  consideration.  The  slightest 


30  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

looseness  in  a  bearing  should  be  at  once  taken  up,  otherwise 
knocking  will  result,  and  the  trouble  will  be  rapidly  increased. 
Engine  bearings,  especially  crankpin  bearings  and  piston  pin 
bearings,  should  have  a  fair  amount  of  side-play — i-i6th  of  an 
inch  side-play  is  not  by  any  means  too  much. 

In  the  case  of  gear  boxes,  bearings  may  become  cut  through 
improper  changing  o'f  the  gears  allowing  the  gear  wheels  to 
grind  against  each  other.  If  this  occurs,  particles  of  grit  will 
be  carried  up  by  the  lubricating  oil  into  the  bearings  and 
rapidly  cut  them  away.  The  remedy  is  to  periodically  drain 
away  the  oil  from  the  gear  box  and  replenish  with  new  oil. 
If  there  is  an  appreciable  amount  of  metallic  grit  in  the  oil  it 
is  advisable  to  examine  the  bearings.  If  they  are  scored  they 
will  require  refitting  and  scraping,  otherwise  they  will  very 
soon  show  great  signs  of  wear  and  allow  the  oil  to  escape. 

In  adjusting  a  cone  ball  bearing,  as  used  in  some  motor  car 
wheels,  it  is  advisable  to  screw  the  cone  up  tight  and  then  to 
screw  up  the  lock  nut  hand-tight  and  afterward  screw  the  cone 
slightly  back — a  quarter  of  a  turn  will  be  sufficient — until  it 
jams  against  the  lock  nut,  finally  tightening  up  the  lock  nut 
and  securing  it  with  a  split  pin.  Should  this  not  be  done,  it 
is  possfble  that,  wrhen  tightening  up  the  lock  nut,  so  much 
pressure  will  be  put  on  to  the  cone  and  balls  as  to  cause  them 
to  break  when  they  come  into  operation  on  the  road.  At  the 
same  time,  they  should  have  no  appreciable  shake. 

The  bearings  in  the  steering  gear  are  of  special  importance, 
and  should  be  kept  perfectly  adjusted  if  the  driver  appreciates 
nicety  of  steering. 

Loose  bearings  in  any  portion  of  the  car  are  generally  in- 
dicated by  noise  and  rattle. 

BENT  AXLE. 

Symptoms:  Tires  wear  transversely. — If  front  axle,  steering  will 
become  erratic. — If  rear  live  axle,  decided  grating  noise  in  differential 
bevel  gear,  and  wobbly  wheel. — Whether  front  or  back  axle,  wheels 
will  get  out  of  alignment  and  give  the  appearance  of  being  inclined 
inwards  at  the  top. 

Causes:      Side-slip. — Collision. — Culvert. — Deep    gutter    or    rut. 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  31 

In  the  event  of  an  accident,  due  to  side-slip  or  collision 
with  another  vehicle,  it  is  advisable  to  at  once  examine  the 
axles.  Damage  to  the  front  one  is  easily  detected,  the  steering 
gear  becoming  strained  or  erratic  in  action,  and  the  wheels  ap- 
pearing as  though  they  inclined  inward  at  the  top.  The  con- 
dition of  the  rear  axle  is  not  so  easy  -to  discover.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  inspection  the  rear  wheels  should  be  lifted  in  turn, 
and  the  half  axle  revolved.  Any  ill  effects  as  regards  strain- 
ing will  be  detected  by  the  appearance  of  a  "tight"  spot.  This 
test  should  not,  however,  be  regarded  as  sufficient. 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  accident  the  user  can  judge 
its  probable  effects.  There  is  the  danger  of  a  bent  axle  (ac- 
cording to  the  nature  and  situation  of  the  bend),  "breaking 
short"  subsequently  at  the  point,  so  that  under  any  circum- 
stances any  visible  damage  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be 
inspected  thoroughly.  For  the  purpose  a  fair  sized  magnify- 
ing glass  will  be  found  serviceable,  and  requires  no  trained 
skill  to  use. 

Where  the  live  part  of  a  live  axle  carries  a  wheel  at  its  end, 
bending  is  a  serious  matter,  as  this  axle  also  supports  the 
weight  of  the  car.  Wobbling  of  the  wheel  in  such  a  case  will 
indicate  a  bent  axle,  and  the  only  safe  remedy  is  to  replace  it 
with  an  entirely  new  axle.  Bending  it  straight  will  only 
stretch  the  metal  and  probably  render  it  brittle  at  a  vital  point, 
so  that  it  may  eventually  break  short. 

Fitting  an  entirely  new  axle  is  a  necessary  precaution. 

BLOW-BACK. 

Symptoms:     Popping  in  carbureter  or  inlet  pipe. 

Causes:  Gas  blown  back  into  carbureter,  from  following  causes: — 
Pitted  inlet  valve. — Grit  under  valve. — Broken  inlet  valve. — Valve 
stuck  up. — Broken  or  defective  valve  spring. — Bad  carburation,  es- 
pecially when  ignition  is  fully  retarded. — Faulty  timing. 

This  term  is  used  as  regards  the  gas,  whether  ignited  or 
not,  blown  back  through  the  inlet  valve  and  inlet  pipe  into 
the  carbureter,  generally  accompanied  by  a  popping  noise. 

In  those  engines  in  which  an  automatic  inlet  valve  open- 


32  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

ing  downward  is  used  and  the  spring  breaks,  loses  its  temper, 
or  fails  to  act,  or  the  valve  stem  itself  breaks,  a  blow-back 
may  be  caused  in  the  carbureter  or  the  inlet  pipe.  In  such 
cases  the  derangement  will  be  so  serious  as  to  cause  the  en- 
gine either  to  stop  or  to  fire  very  intermittently.  Where  the 
inlet  valve  is  operated  mechanically,  a  blow-back  may  be 
caused  by  the  valve  stem  bottoming  on  the  top  of  the  plunger 
instead  of  the  valve  head  fitting  down  on  its  seat.  In  such 
cases  the  remedy  is  to  alter  the  height  of  the  valve  plunger 
where  an  adjustment  is  provided,  or  to  grind  the  end  of  the 
valve  stem  so  as  to  shorten  it  and  allow  the  valve  to  seat 
properly.  This  adjustment  should  be  made  when  the  engine 
is  hot.  It  may  sometimes  require  to  be  done  after  the  valve 
has  been  ground  in.  If  the  valve  is  pitted  or  unduly  corroded, 
a  blow-back  may  be  caused.  The  remedy  is  to  grind  it  in.  A 
mixture  which  is  too  weak  will  sometimes  cause  popping  in 
the  carbureter;  wrong  adjustment  of  the  valve  camshaft  is 
another  fruitful  cause,  due  to  the  exhaust  valve  remaining 
open  too  long  or  to  the  combustion  being  so  slow  that  there 
is  actually  a  flame  in  the  cylinder  at  the  time  that  the  suction 
stroke  commences.  The  proper  set  of  the  valves  is  dealt  with 
under  "Overhauling." 

A  blow-back  should  not  be  confused  with  a  back  fire,  the 
latter  being  the  explosion  of  the  charge  before  the  piston  has 
reached  the  top  of  its  compression  stroke,  with  the  result  that 
the  direction  of  rotation  of  the  engine  is  reversed.  See  Back 
Fire. 

THE  BRAKES. 

Symptoms:  Ineffective. — Heat. — Jamming. — Chattering. — Car  shows 
tendency  to  slew  or  deviate  from  the  running  line  when  rear  brakes 
are  applied. — Pedal  brake  fails  to  act  through  insufficiency  of  clear- 
ance for  pedal  movement. — Failure  of  certain  forms  of  brake  liners. — 
Brakes  fail  to  entirely  "come  off"  when  released  or  may  stick  in  the 
on  or  off  position,  requiring  considerable  effort  on  the  lever  to  free. 

Causes:  Grease  on  drum.— Actuating  rods  and  levers  want  ad- 
justment.— Circle  of  brake  block  or  shoe  smaller  than  circle  of  drum 
so  that  front  point  of  block  engages  first. — One  of  the  rear  brakes 
acting,  the  other  remaining  inoperative  through  failure  in  com- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  33 

pensating  device. — Liners  want  redressing,  or  in  the  case  of  metal 
to  metal  liners,  renewing. — Band  releasing  movement  (spring  or 
bell  crank  lever)  wants  readjusting,  and  in  the  case  of  toggle  arms 
undue  play  at  joints,  or  distortion  of  one  or  other  of  the  arm  move- 
ments.— Take-off  spring  weak  or  broken. 

A  foot-applied,  double-acting  brake  is  usually  fitted  on  the 
countershaft  or  propeller  shaft,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  double 
acting  hand-applied  brakes  act  on  the  back  wheels.  The 
countershaft  brake  is  much  more  used  than  the  hind  wheel 
brakes,  and  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  depend  on  the  former 
alone  and  risk  the  latter  being  in  order.  This  is  a  most  dan- 
gerous practice,  and  cannot  be  too  much  condemned.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  hand  lever  brake  acting  on  the  back  wheels 
is  the  one  that  should  be  used  for  general  purposes,  because 
it  causes  less  strain  to  the  car  than  the  countershaft  brake. 
This  is  especially  so  in  the  case  of  the  propeller  shaft  system 
of  transmission.  The  strain  on  the  universal  joints,  bevel 
wheels,  and  differential  bevel  pinions  is  excessive. 

It  is  also  vital  to  the  safety  of  the  motorist  that  this  brake 
should  always  be  in  perfect  order,  for  should  the  chain  (in 
case  of  chain  transmission)  or  bevel  wheel  (in  case  of  propel- 
ler shaft)  break,  or  the  differential  collapse,  the  brake  would 
become  totally  inoperative. 

Before  every  run,  both  brakes  should  be  examined  and 
tested,  and  any  defects  at  once  made  right.  Brakes  should 
be  adjusted  so  that  while  there  is  no  danger  of  their  acting 
when  not  required,  sufficient  grip  can  be  secured  by  the  hand 
or  foot  lever  to  hold  the  car,  with  either  brake,  on  a  very  steep 
incline.  The  amount  of  slack  to  be  left  can  only  be  told  by 
experience,  as  different  types  of  brakes  require  different  treat- 
ment. If,  on  applying  the  hand  brake,  the  car  shows  a  ten- 
dency to  slew  round,  this  indicates  that  one  of  the  brakes  is 
gripping  more  strongly  than  the  other;  an  immediate  ad- 
justment should  be  made.  Both  brakes  should  grip  together 
and  evenly.  An  effective  compensatory  device  should  pre- 
vent this  trouble,  however.  See  that  the  mechanism  of  same 
is  clean  and  well  oiled,  or  it  will  not  work  smoothly.  If  a  wire 
cable  running  through  the  brake  shaft  is  used,  keep  the  round- 


34  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

ed  tube  edges  where  it  leaves  the  ends  of  the  shaft  well 
greased.  Also  periodically  see  if  the  cable  is  fraying,  and  at 
once  replace  the  cable  on  the  least  sign  of  wear. 

When  a  brake  is  applied  with  a  toggle  mechanism,  it  is 
necessary  to  periodically  examine  it  to  see  that  the  two  short 
levers  of  the  toggle  have  not  come  into  line  with  each  other, 
as  they  may  do  if  excessive  wear  takes  place  between  the  shoe 
and  the  drum.  As  soon  as  they  get  into  this  position,  the 
braking  becomes  inoperative.  In  some  of  the  modern  cars 
there  is  an  adjustment  provided,  by  means  of  which  the  tog- 
gles can  be  slightly  lengthened  if  necessary.  If  no  such  ad- 
justment is  provided,  it  is  necessary  to  have  either  the  shoes 
or  the  drum  relined,  \vhich  can  only  be  done  by  a  competent 
mechanic.  Most  modern  brakes  employ  cast-iron  shoes  against 
steel  drums,  and  occasional  lubrication  is  good  for  them.  In 
some  of  the  older  cars  leather-faced  steel  bands  or  bands  faced 
with  segments  of  vulcanized  fiber  may  be  found.  The  latter 
should  be  oiled  occasionally.  The  former  should  be  well 
dressed  with  clutch  oil. 

Too  lengthy  an  application  of  the  brakes  in  the  case  of 
leather  may  result  in  the  leather  burning.  Once  this  condi- 
tion has  been  set  up,  the  bands  must  be  entirely  refaced  with 
leather. 

In  the  case  of  both  hand  and  foot  applied  brakes  it  is  neces- 
sary to  see  that  the  lever  has  plenty  of  room  to  move  forward 
or  backward — as  the  case  may  be — after  the  brake  is  on  hard. 
Many  brakes  have  become  inoperative  owing  to  their  being 
so  adjusted  that  the  lever  could  not  move  far  enough  to  oper- 
ate the  brake  efficiently.  A  brake  which  is  in  constant  contact 
with  the  drum  will  rapidly  heat  up.  This  state  of  affairs  can 
generally  only  be  ascertained  after  the  car  has  been  running 
for  some  time,  and  therefore  it  is  advisable  occasionally  to 
feel  the  brake  drums  and  shoes  immediately  after  the  car  has 
come  to  rest.  A  brake  which  has  this  tendency  may  become 
dangefously  overheated  on  a  long,  steep  hill,  and  a  serious 
accident  might  occur  should  it  seize,  especially  in  the  case  of 
one  only  of  the  rear  brakes  seizing  and  locking  one  back 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  35 

wheel.  Sometimes  bad  adjustment  of  the  brake  may  be  due 
solely  to  bad  adjustment  of  the  wheel  bearing,  especially  in 
the  case  of  a  chain  driven  car,  or  cars  having  their  wheels  run- 
ning on  the  outside  of  live  axles.  Should  the  adjustment  of 
these  be  such  that  the  wheel  can  tilt  over  on  its  bearing,  the 
brake  shoe  will  bind  sideways.  The  remedy  is  to  adjust  the 
wheel  bearing. 

Where  a  metal  to  metal  brake  chatters  and  then  goes  on 
suddenly,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  shoes  or  blocks 
are  bearing  more  at  those  ends  which  face  the  motion  of  the 
drum.  The  remedy  is  to  file  off  the  engaging  surfaces  of  the 
shoes  or  blocks  at  their  ends  so  as  to  form  a  gradual  incline 
in  fron.t  of  the  actual  braking  surfaces. 

CARBURATION  TROUBLES. 

Symptoms:  Engine  runs  sluggishly  on  level  or  on  an  up  gradient, 
but  picks  up  on  a  down  grade. — Unsteady  running. — Misfires. — 
Popping. — Undue  smell. 

Causes:  Gasolene  supply  at  fault,  caused  by  presence  of  dirt  in 
carbureter  base,  filters,  or  in  feed  pipe  from  gasolene  tank;  by  the 
jet  being  frozen,  choked,  or  the  aperture  incorrect;  gasolene  level 
too  high  or  too  low;  carbureter  frozen;  air  lock  in  gasolene  tank; 
too  much  pressure  in  pressure  feed  tank;  bent  needle  valve  stem; 
partially  jammed  needle  valve,  or  a  leakage  past  same  when  seated; 
punctured  float;  improperly  or  unevenly  weighted  float. 

Water  in  gasolene. — Too  weak  mixture. — Sluggish  or  partially  in- 
operative inlet  valve  (in  the  case  of  an  automatically  operated  one). — 
Insufficient  vaporization  when  starting  in  very  cold  weather. — Im- 
properly adjusted  automatic  air  valve. — Tanks  empty  or  nearly  empty. 
— Stale  gasolene. — Insufficient  supply  of  hot  air. 

If  the  car  runs  fairly  well  at  low  speed,  on  the  level,  or 
downhill,  but  jibs  when  the  work  becomes  heavy,  it  is  gen- 
erally an  indication  that  the  gasolene  supply  is  at  fault. 

Before  going  into  a  detailed  examination  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  flood  the  carbureter  by  depressing  the  float,  and  then  see 
if  the  running  of  the  car  is  improved  for  the  next  few  yards — 
that  is,  while  the  gasolene  in  the  carbureter  lasts.  If  it  is, 
the  test  is  a  good  index  that  the  engine  is  not  getting  suffi- 
cient feed. 


36  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

The  following  is  another  useful  test.  Expose  the  jet;  turn 
the  gasolene  full  on ;  hold  up  the  valve  spindle  till  the  car- 
bureter floods;  then  jerk  the  spindle  freely  up  and  down  by  a 
light  effort  with  the  fingers.  If  the  gasolene  spurts  freely 
out  of  the  jet  or  nozzle,  it  is  evident  that  the  gasolene  feed  is 
in  no  wise  at  fault.  If,  however,  the  result  of  these  tests  is  to 
point  to  a  failure  in  the  gasolene  supply,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  a  systematic  examination. 

If  the  supply  pipe  is  partially  choked,  the  running  of  the 
engine  is,  as  a  rule,  intermittent,  for  a  certain  amount  of  gaso- 
lene gets  through,  which  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  carbureter 
full  when  the  work  is  light,  but  not  otherwise ;  or  the  obstruc- 
tion may  be  of  a  movable  nature,  at  times  allowing  the  gaso- 
lene to  pass  more  freely,  and  at  times  blocking  it  altogether. 
A  total  blockage  will,  of  course,  stop  the  engine.  By  racing 
the  engine  suddenly  the  increased  suction  will  sometimes 
clear  away  the  obstruction. 

In  the  carbureter  itself  dirt  may  choke  the  inlet  pipe  about 
the  region  of  the  valve,  or  the  duct  leading  to  the  jet,  or  the 
jet  itself,  may  become  choked.  If  dirt  is  suspected,  it  is  best 
to  begin  with  the  carbureter.  Open  the  aperture  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  let  the  contents  run  off.  It  will  be  easily  seen  if  dirt 
is  present.  If  this  does  not  have  the  desired  effect,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  the  carbureter  to  pieces  and  clean  every 
portion  thoroughly,  especially  the  filter,  which  is  apt  to  get 
choked.  A  tiny  piece  of  grit  or  other  obstruction  may  inter- 
mittently, totally,  or  partially  choke  the  jet,  or  the  passage 
leading  thereto,  by  being  carried  up  by  the  flow  of  gasolene, 
and  dropping  back  when  the  pressure  ceases.  Agitating  the 
float  will  in  that  case  be  deceptive,  as  the  jet  chamber  will 
flood  all  right  temporarily,  but  when  the  engine  is  started  the 
floating  particles  will  get  sucked  into  the  jet.  The  jet  should 
be  removed,  thin  wire  (such  as  is  used  for  tying  bunches  of 
flowers)  or  an  acetylene  burner  cleaner  passed  through  it,  and 
then  washed  out.  Needles  should  not  be  used  on  account  of 
the  risk  of  the  end  breaking  or  the  hole  in  the  jet  being  en- 
larged, and  thus  upsetting  the  carburation. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  37 

When  the  supply  pipe  is  disconnected  from  the  carbureter, 
and  the  gasolene  is  turned  on,  it  is  easy  to  see  if  the  flow  is 
steady  and  strong;  if  not,  the  supply  pipe  should  be  discon- 
nected from  the  tank  and  removed  altogether.  An  ordinary 
tire  pump  should  then  be  connected  to  one  end  and  vigorous- 
ly operated.  This,  in  most  cases,  will  blow  the  obstruction 
through.  Failing  that,  a  wire  should  be  passed  through  the 
pipe,  and  to  this  end  the  pipe  will  have  to  be  straightened  out. 
It  should  be  done  cautiously,  and,  if  there  are  actual  loops,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  heat  it  to  a  dull  red.  If  that  fails,  the 
obstruction  will  have  to  be  burnt  out  on  a  forge  fire,  a  wire 
being  used  to  clear  away  the  burnt  products  which  are  left. 

Neither  carbureter  nor  supply  pipe  should  be  disconnected 
in  the  presence  of  any  artificial  light,  except  electric.  This 
especially  applies  to  the  supply  pipe  at  the  tank  end,  for  if 
the  gasolene  caught  fire  nothing  could  save  the  car. 

In  the  case  of  a  gravity  fed  carbureter  the  partial  or  com- 
plete stoppage  of  the  air  hole  in  the  tank  will  prevent  the  free 
flow  of  the  gasolene. 

Another  cause  of  trouble,  in  cases  where  the  gasolene  is 
pressure  fed  to  the  carbureter,  is  an  excess  of  pressure  in  the 
tank,  which  causes  the  gasolene  to  actually  lift  the  needle 
valve  off  its  seat  and  flood  the  carbureter.  This  is  solely  due 
to  the  choking  up  of  the  pressure  release  valve,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  prevent  the  air  pressure  from  rising  beyond  the 
determined  amount.  The  remedy,  of  course,  is  to  take  down 
the  pressure  release  valve,  and  see  that  it  is  working  properly. 
In  some  cases  a  pressure  gauge  is  fitted  on  the  dashboard, 
showing  the  pressure  in  the  gasolene  tank,  and  if  this  trouble 
arises,  it  will  be  indicated  by  the  increased  pressure  shown  on 
the  gauge. 

The  surface  of  the  gasolene  in  the  float  chamber  should  re- 
main at  a  level  the  least  shade  under  the  top  of  the  spraying 
jet.  If  the  float  is  too  light  it  will  rise  too  soon,  shutting  the 
valve  before  the  gasolene  is  high  enough,  and  so  starving  the 
engine.  The  remedy  is  to  increase  the  weight  slightly  by  ad- 
ding a  blob  of  solder,  or  the  float  may  be  too  heavy  and  cause 


38  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

flooding,  in  which  case  a  little  weight  should  be  carefully  and 
evenly  scraped  off. 

In  increasing  the  weight  of  the  float  by  adding  solder,  it  is 
very  necessary  to  place  the  solder  in  such  a  position  on  the 
float  as  not  to  interfere  with  its  balance.  It  is,  therefore,  bet- 
ter to  attach  two  blobs  of  solder — one  on  either  side  of  the 
central  hole  through  the  float — otherwise  the  float  may  tilt 
sideways,  and  jam  on  the  needle  valve,  which  will  prevent  the 
carbureter  acting  properly.  To  detect  whether  the  float  is 
evenly  weighted,  it  should  be  allowed  to  float  in  a  basin  of 
water,  when  it  may  be  deemed  correct  if  it  rises  out  of  the 
water  the  same  height  on  all  sides. 

Trying  either  a  longer  or  shorter  jet  is  an  alternative  meant 
of  correcting  the  gasolene  level.  It  has  this  advantage,  that 
one  can  experiment  with  jets  of  different  lengths  so  as  to  ar- 
rive at  the  gasolene  level  which  gives  the  best  all-round  re- 
sults. 

The  float  spindle,  the  end  of  which  operates  as  a  valve,  may 
get  bent,  and  consequently  act  irregularly.  The  float,  too, 
may  not  be  evenly  weighted,  and  may  consequently  get  tem- 
porarily jammed,  which  will  affect  the  height  of  the  gasolene 
in  the  carbureter  intermittently.  This,  needless  to  say,  would 
be  an  exceedingly  difficult  trouble  to  locate.  The  trying  of  a 
spare  float  would  probably  be  the  best  way  to  deal  with  this 
trouble. 

If  the  trouble  is  not  in  the  supply  of  gasolene  to  the  float 
chamber,  there  may  be  other  causes  of  carburation  failure. 

The  float  chamber  may  be  flooded,  for  example.  This  is 
caused  either  by  a  punctured  float  or  too  heavy  a  float.  In 
the  former  case  the  float  itself  fills  up  with  gasolene  (the  pres- 
ence of  which  can  be  detected  by  shaking  it  close  to  one's  ear), 
and  consequently  will  not  close  the  needle  valve  to  the  float 
chamber.  The  gasolene  must  be  carefully  drained  out  of  the 
float  and  the  hole  soldered  up.  If  the  hole  is  so  minute  that 
the  gasolene  will  not  flow  out  it  should  be  enlarged  with  a  pin. 
If,  however,  the  puncture  cannot  be  located  at  all,  the  float 
should  be  sunk  in  water  which  is  almost  boiling.  The  heat 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


39 


will  expand  the  gas  to  such  an  extent  as  to  force  it  through 
the  aperture,  and  a  flow  of  bubbles  will  indicate  the  spot. 
All  the  gasolene  can  be  removed  in  this  way,  but  if  the  motor- 
ist has  a  soldering  kit  with  him,  it  is  better  to  enlarge  the  hole 
and,  having  shaken  the  gasolene  out,  solder  the  hole.  In  rare 
cases  the  tube  through  the  center  of  the  float  may  puncture. 
Here  the  trouble  is  a  very  difficult  one  to  locate,  or  to  remedy. 

If  the  float  is  too  heavy,  the  gasolene  will  rise  too  high  in 
the  float  chamber  before  the  valve  comes  into  operation.  It 
must  be  lightened,  but  very  carefully  and  gradually.  The 
valve  may  be  worn,  allowing  the  gasolene  to  leak  through 
and,  consequently,  flood  the  carbureter.  The  remedy  is  to 
grind  the  valve  on  its  seating,  but  should  this  be  ineffective, 
owing  to  the  wear  being  deep-seated,  it  is  then  necessary  to 
turn  the  valve  in  a  lathe.  The  valve  spindle  may  have  been 
unduly  shortened  by  successive  grindings,  and  consequently 
the  valve  fails  to  act.  In  this  case  remove  the  needle  end 
from  the  disk  by  heating  the  solder,  and  slide  the  disk  the 
smallest  fraction  of  an  inch  up  the  spindle.  Then  re-solder. 
Where  a  separate  air  valve  is  fitted  it  may  jam  in  the  closed 
position,  when  all  the  suction  of  the  engine  will  be  diverted 
to  the  jet,  and  thus  cause  an  over-supply  of  spirit,  resulting 
in  too  rich  a  mixture. 

Water  in  gasolene  is  a  very  common  source  of  trouble.  In 
most  cars  a  special  trap  is  arranged  to  intercept  the  water, 
and  this  should  be  opened  at  frequent  intervals.  There  is 
also  an  aperture  at  the  bottom  of  the  carbureter  for  the  same 
purpose. 

The  presence  of  only  the  slightest  amount  of  water  in  or 
about  the  carbureter  is  often  sufficient  to  cause  a  stoppage. 
Therefore,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  carbureter  is  pro- 
tected from  water  which  may  leak  from  the  circulation  sys- 
tem, and,  in  washing  a  car,  no  water  should  be  allowed  to 
collect  near  the  carbureter. 

Occasionally  a  mild  flare-up  at  starting  may  occur  through 
one  or  other  of  these  causes.  It  can  only  happen,  however, 
if  the  carbureter  has  been  flooded  to  such  an  extent  that  gaso- 


4u  'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

lene  has  run  about  the  engine,  and  if  the  inlet  pipe  near  the 
carbureter  is  not  properly  protected  with  gauze.  If  a  flare-up 
occurs,  the  gasolene  should  be  turned  off  at  once,  and  if  the 
engine  is  running  it  should  be  let  run  until  the  gasolene  in  the 
carbureter  has  been  exhausted.  If  the  flare-up  is  really  bad, 
sand  should  be  dashed  on  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  This  should 
be  carefully  cleared  away  afterward. 

The  pipe  which  conveys  the  gasolene  from  the  tank  to  the 
carbureter  should  be  fitted  with  a  cock  in  an  accessible  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  gasolene  can  be  turned  off  at  once,  should  the 
carbureter  overflow.  This  may  arise  through  faulty  seating 
of  the  needle  valve,  and  might  become  the  cause  of  a  flare-up. 
This  cock  should  always  be  closed  when  leaving  the  car,  so 
that  one  may  know  instinctively  where  to  find  it  in  case  of  a 
flare-up,  and  that  it  is  in  proper  condition  to  shut  off  the  gaso- 
lene. 

In  excessively  cold  weather  trouble  is  sometimes  experi- 
enced through  the  carbureter  actually  freezing.  This  is  due 
to  the  supply  of  hot  air  not  being  sufficient,  and  the  owner  of 
the  car  should  remedy  this  as  soon  as  possible.  A  difficulty 
in  starting  sometimes  occurs  owing  to  the  cold  air  preventing 
the  vaporizing  of  the  gasolene;  a  hot  cloth  should  be  applied 
to  the  carbureter. 

Where  the  air  intake  to  the  carbureter  is  exposed  this 
trouble  will  be  increased  so  that  in  cold  weather  it  is  well 
to  see  that  the  end  of  the  air  intake  pipe  is  arranged  to  draw 
as  much  air  from  around  the  hottest  part  of  the  exhaust  pipe 
as  possible.  This  is  conveniently  done  by  using  a  "tee"  con- 
nection at  the  end  of  the  intake  pipe,  so  as  to  surround  the 
exhaust  pipe. 

The  proper  running  of  the  engine  depends  to  a  very  great 
extent  on  the  aperture  of  the  jet  being  absolutely  correct. 
If  it  is  too  small  the  engine  will  be  starved,  and  if  too  great 
too  much  gasolene  will  pass  to  the  mixing  chamber. 

With  modern  carbureters,  it  is  not  advisable  to  experiment 
too  much  with  the  jet  as  regards  the  aperture,  as  this  has  us- 
ually been  carefully  calculated  by  the  manufacturers,  and  is 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  41 

the  result  of  extensive  experiments  by  them.  It  may  be  well 
to  point  out,  however,  that  it  is  possible  for  the  jet  to  actually 
become  enlarged  in  use,  especially  if  it  is  very  fine.  In  such 
cases  the  best  remedy  is  a  new  jet  supplied  by  the  manufac- 
turers. 

In  some  carbureters,  the  air  inlet  is  guarded  by  a  finely 
woven  brass  gauze  screen.  If  excessive  dust  is  drawn  in, 
this  screen  may  become  partially  closed,  in  which  case  the 
mixture  will  be  too  rich,  and  popping  and  misfiring  may  re- 
sult. The  richness  of  the  mixture  may  generally  be  detected 
by  the  smell.  The  remedy  is  to  clean  the  wire  gauze,  which 
can  be  easily  done  by  dabbing  at  it  with  a  dry  painter's  brush, 
but  it  is  advisable  that  the  gauze  should  be  detached  from  the 
carbureter  before  this  is  done. 

In  all  modern  carbureters  there  is  a  filter,  situated  generally 
at  the  point  where  the  gasolene  flows  into  the  float  chamber. 
This  should  be  periodically  taken  apart,  and  thoroughly 
cleaned. 

It  is  stated  on  the  authority  of  one  of  the  most  notable 
oil  experts  that  dust  does  actually  pass  through  with  the  air 
into  the  engine  and  helps  in  the  formation  of  deposit  on  the 
cylinder  wall  and  piston  head.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  that 
any  extra  air  opening  to  the  carbureter  should  be  guarded 
against  an  inflow  of  dust  from  the  radiator. 

Where  the  carbureter  is  water-jacketed,  it  is  necessary  oc- 
casionally to  undo  the  unions,  swill  the  water  jacket  out,  and 
examine  the  pipes  to  see  that  the  water  is  circulating  proper- 
ly. Where  the  carbureter  is  jacketed  by  a  by-pass  from  the 
exhaust,  carbon  deposit  will  accumulate  in  the  jacket,  and  this 
can  be  cleaned  out  by  hot  water  with  washing  soda  dissolved 
in  it.  This  cleansing  should  be  done  occasionally,  otherwise, 
with  a  jacket  of  small  dimensions,  the  deposit  may  choke  all 
up  and  prevent  the  proper  heating  of  the  carbureter. 

There  is  one  important  point  in  connection  with  carbu- 
reters having  automatically  operated  air  inlet  valves,  and 
that  is  to  see  that  the  sliding  pistons  are  working  quite  freely 
in  their  cylinders.  In  some  cases  these  are  controlled  by 


42  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

means  of  diaphragm  valves,  generally  of  leather.  The  leather 
may  become  hard  and  cracked,  in  which  case  air  will  be  drawn 
in  and  the  automatic  valve  will  not  act  properly.  The  remedy 
is  a  new  leather  diaphragm.  In  some  cases  the  automatic 
valve  is  operated  by  a  spring;  the  tension  of  this  may  vary, 
but  generally  provision  is  made  for  adjustment.  In  another 
type  a  dashpot  using  vaseline,  glycerine,  or  other  liquid,  is 
applied  to  control  the  movement  of  the  automatic  air  valve. 
In  such  a  case  it  is  necessary  to  see  that,  if  the  carbureter  has 
from  any  cause  become  detached,  the  glycerine  liquid  is  not 
spilt.  If  it  should  get  spilt,  the  quantity  will  have  to  be  made 
up,  but  otherwise  no  addition  need  be  made,  as  the  glycerine 
will  not  evaporate. 

CHAINS, 

Symptoms:     Car  stops. — Harsh  noises. 

Causes:  Chains  too  loose,  too  tight,  or  clogged  with  mud. — Stone, 
or  other  foreign  matter  gets  between  chain  and  sprocket. — Broken 
or  distorted  spring  causing  chain  sprockets  to  get  out  of  line,  and 
chain  to  mount  the  teeth. — Lack  of  proper  lubrication. — Sprockets 
or  chains  worn. 

Given  a  good  chain  to  start  with,  there  are  only  two  causes 
likely  to  give  trouble — improper  adjustment  and  insufficient 
lubrication. 

If  a  chain  is  left  too  loose,  it  is  liable  to  jump  the  sprocket 
and  come  off,  probably  causing  damage  to  itself  or  to  the 
wheel  before  the  car  can  be  stopped.  To  adjust  the  chain, 
the  top  half  should  be  held  taut  between  the  sprockets,  and 
the  chain  stays  tightened  or  loosened  till  the  sag  in  the 
lower  part  is  about  one  inch  out  of  the  straight.  Chains 
which  are  too  tight  absorb  power  from  the  engine,  stretch 
unduly,  and  are  very  liable  to  bend  the  chain  stays. 

In  making  the  adjustment  it  is  inadvisable  to  rely  on  the 
apparent  tightness  of  the  chain,  otherwise,  if  one  chain  were 
worn  more  than  the  other,  and  both  were  adjusted  to  the 
same  tightness,  the  back  axle  would  be  put  out  of  alignment 
with  the  car.  If  it  is  known  that  the  back  axle  is  in  true 
alignment  with  the  car,  then  each  radius  rod  may  be  adjusted 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  43 

by  giving  the  nuts  the  same  number  of  turns  exactly,  which 
will  keep  the  back  axle  square. 

As  the  chain  wears  it  is  likely  to  stretch  unevenly,  and 
this  must  be  taken  into  account  when  effecting  an  adjustment. 
Before  tightening  up  the  lock  nuts  or  making  the  adjustment, 
the  car  should  be  moved  slowly  forward  for  one  complete 
revolution  of  the  chain,  and  if  the  chain  becomes  taut  at  one 
particular  point,  thus  indicating  uneven  stretching,  the  ad- 
justing nut  must  be  slightly  slackened.  In  wet  weather  it  is 
well  to  examine  the  chains  two  or  three  times  during  the 
course  of  a  day's  run,  for,  although  adjusted  to  perfection  at 
starting,  they  may  tighten  up  when  smothered  in  mud,  and 
must  be  readjusted  to  suit  the  altered  conditions. 

When  a  chain  stretches  to  such  an  extent  that  a  link  has 
to  be  removed,  both  chains  should  be  replaced  by  new  ones. 
The  same  applies  when  one  chain  has  stretched  perceptibly 
more  than  the  other,  even  although  the  extension  does  not 
amount  to  the  length  of  a  link. 

Chain  lubrication,  though  troublesome,  as  it  necessitates 
removing  the  chain,  is  so  beneficial  to  the  life  of  the  chain, 
and  saves  so  much  useless  work  being  done  by  the  engine, 
that  it  well  repays  the  trouble  it  entails.  The  two  main 
points  are  to  remove  grit  and  dirt,  which  grind  away  the 
metal  in  the  links  and  rivets,  and  to  insure  a  due  amount  of 
lubricant  reaching  each  rivet  and  the  interior  or  bearing  sur- 
face of  each  block  or  roller.  To  remove  all  dirt,  boiling  in 
soda  or  potash  water  for  half  an  hour  is  a  good  plan.  The 
chains  should  then  be  hung  up  to  thoroughly  dry.  When  dry 
have  ready  a  pan  of  best  quality  melted  tallow  mixed  with 
black  lead,  into  which  the  chains  should  be  put  to  soak  for  a 
few  hours;  this  insures  the  mixture  reaching  all  the  rivets, 
and  when  the  chains  are  drained  and  wiped,  they  show  a  clean 
dry  surface,  to  which  mud  and  dust  are  not  inclined  to  stick. 

For  a  quick  dressing  kerosene  may  be  substituted  for  the 
alkali  boiling,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  kero- 
sene between  rivets  and  rollers  is  replaced  by  a  lubricant. 

Between  these  dressings,  the  chains  should  be  treated  daily 


44  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

with  an  application  of  good  chain  dressing,  as  graphite,  etc. 

It  is  good  practice  occasionally,  when  chains  require  clean- 
ing or  greasing,  to  change  them  from  one  side  of  the  car  to 
the  other,  as  it  often  happens  that  one  chain  will  stretch  more 
than  another  owing  to  greater  driving  strain  coming  on  one 
side  of  the  car  than  the  other. 

Spare  links  should  always  be  carried  in  case  of  breakage. 
It  is  a  tedious  job,  however,  to  cut  out  the  broken  link  on  the 
roadside,  and  entails  much  filing.  It  is  possible  to  get  home 
with  one  chain  by  lashing  the  sprocket  on  the  other  side  of 
the  countershaft  fast  to  the  frame,  so  that  it  cannot  revolve. 
The  drive  will  then  be  transmitted  through  the  differential. 
The  strain  to  the  latter,  however,  is  considerable,  and  conse- 
quently this  expedient  should  not  be  adopted  unless  the  mo- 
torist is  near  home.  He  should  also  keep  on  the  low  speed 
to  reduce  the  strain  as  far  as  possible,  and  it  would  be  a  wise 
precaution  to  shed  the  passengers. 

In  modern  practice  chains  are  very  often  inclosed  in  oil- 
tight  gear  cases,  in  which  case  the  use  of  graphite  will  not 
be  necessary,  as  the  gear  case  protects  the  chain  from  dust 
and  dirt,  but  the  oil  in  the  gear  case  should  occasionally  be 
drawn  off  and  replenished,  and  preferably  the  gear  case 
should  be  washed  out  with  kerosene.  When  the  teeth  of  the 
sprocket  wheels  are  worn  so  as  to  become  hollow,  and  thus 
hold  the  slack  of  the  chain  up  to  the  teeth,  tHey  should  be 
filed  up.  Sometimes  an  improvement  may  be  made  by  revers- 
ing them — that  is,  using  the  left-hand  wheel  on  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  countershaft  and  vice  versa.  In  this  way  the  wear 
comes  on  the  other  side  of  the  teeth,  but  if  the  wear  is  at  all 
great,  it  is  preferable  to  replace  the  sprockets  at  once.  The 
same  applies,  but  to  a  lesser  extent,  to  the  sprocket  wheels 
on  the  road  wheels. 

THE  CHANGE  SPEED  GEAR. 

Symptoms:    Change  speed  wheels  fail  to  remain  in  mesh. — General 
noise  at  gear  box  and  loss  of  power  through  increased  friction. 
Causes:     Entering   edges    of   change    speed    wheels    have    become 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  45 

too  rounded  by  excessive  rubbing  when  speed  changing. — Teeth  too 
deeply  in  mesh. — Excessive  play  in  bearings  due  to  wear  or  want 
of  adjustment. — Clutch  forks  or  gear  shafts  distorted  or  twisted  (the 
latter  is  of  rare  occurrence). — Actuating  mechanism  requiring  ad- 
justment or  repair. — Gear  wheels  overhanging  through  lost  motion 
in  the  connections. — Teeth  broken  or  worn. — Gear  wheels  which 
are  not  in  use  grinding  against  each  other. — Change  speed  lever  or 
its  shaft  jamming  or  becoming  strained. — Gear  lever  quadrant  bent 
so  as  to  jam  or  bind  gear  lever. 

The  teeth  of  the  gear  pinions  should  show  a  brightly  bur- 
nished surface  on  the  faces,  but  not  across  the  top  or  'bot- 
tom of  the  faces.  By  "face"  is  meant  the  breadth  of  the  tooth 
which  engages  with  the  opposite  wheel.  This  denotes  that 
the  gear  wheels  are  properly  meshed  as  regards  depth  of  en- 
gagement, but  as  in  modern  gear  boxes  this  is  an  adjustment 
which  cannot  be  altered  after  manufacture,  no  adjustment  is 
possible  nor  likely  to  be  required. 

If  the  teeth  are  worn  to  a  knife  edge,  the  gear  ring  or  the 
entire  wheel  will  want  renewing.  The  new  wheels  should  be 
obtained  from  the  makers  of  the  car.  The  entering  edges  of 
the  gear  wheels  will  be  rapidly  backed  or  rounded  off  if  harsh- 
ly intermeshed  when  operating  the  change  speed  lever.  This, 
though  not  actually  dangerous  to  the  gear  teeth,  or  their  driv- 
ing power,  may  cause  the  gears  to  slip  out  of  mesh,  especial- 
ly if  there  be  much  play  in  the  joints  of  the  striking  gear 
mechanism — that  is,  the  change  speed  lever  and  rods  and  the 
gear  striking  forks,  by  means  of  which  the  wheels  are  moved 
into  mesh. 

The  speed  changing  movements  should  all  be  closely 
watched  while  manipulating  the  actuating  lever.  The  wheels 
on  the  driving  sleeve  should  move  deliberately  and  accurately 
into  their  corresponding  wheels — that  is,  provided  the  teeth  are 
not  directly  opposite  to  one  another.  The  edges  of  the  wheels 
should  be  in  a  perfect  line,  not  one  overhanging  the  other ;  if 
they  overhang  it  indicates  considerable  lost  motion  in  the  con- 
nections between  the  sleeves  and  the  actuating  lever.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  latitude  is  permissible  here,  but  the  movement 
should  not  be  more  than  what  might  be  termed  "a  little  free." 


4°"  'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

If  there  is  a  lot  of  "backlash,"  trouble  will  follow.  Test  by 
holding  the  gear  wheels  in  correct  mesh  and  then  operating 
the  change-speed  lever.  Such  backlash  is  generally  due  to  the 
wearing  oval  of  the  holes  in  which  the  pins  coupling  the  rod 
ends  work,  or  the  wearing  of  the  pins  themselves.  Such  wear 
will  result  in  the  gear  wheels  not  being  fully  in  mesh  when 
the  change-speed  lever  is  itself  right  over  the  notch  on  the 
quadrant  or  sector  plate.  The  remedy  is  to  reamer  out  the 
holes  in  the  rods  forming  the  connection  and  fit  new  steel- 
pins,  case-hardening  both  if  possible. 

It  may  sometimes  happen  that  the  quadrant  through  which 
the  change-speed  lever  moves  is  damaged  so  as  to  become 
bent  or  distorted.  It  will  then  prevent  the  gear  lever  being 
freely  operated.  The  remedy  is  to  unbolt  the  two  plates  and 
straighten  them  out  again  so  as  to  afford  the  lever  free  room, 
but  not  more  than  enough  to  allow  it  to  move  smoothly 
through  the  length  of  the  quadrant. 

The  shafts  carrying  the  various  trains  of  wheels  should 
be  pulled  upward,  and  shaken  sideways  to  test  for  looseness 
in  the  bearing.  If  there  is  any  sign  of  looseness  they  should 
be  adjusted  at  once,  or  the  wear  will  become  excessive.  See 
"Bearings." 

In  the  Mercedes  type  of  gear  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the 
locking  arrangement  which  holds  one  pair  of  gear  wheels  out 
of  engagement  with  the  secondary  shaft  is  working  properly, 
and  that  the  wheels  are  quite  free  from  each  other  when  the 
change-speed  lever,  through  the  medium  of  the  selector  bar 
mechanism,  is  operating  the  other  pair  of  sliding  gears. 
Otherwise  the  teeth  of  adjacent  wheels  may  grind  against 
each  other  and  cause  considerable  damage. 

Sometimes  trouble  may  be  due  to  the  jamming  or  bending 
of  the  rocking  shaft,  which  slides  endways  to  engage  with 
the  selector  bars.  This  may  be  caused  by  a  strain  set  up  in 
the  tube  through  which  it  runs,  or  the  shaft  along  which  it 
slides,  due  sometimes  to  lack  of  proper  lubrication,  and  in 
other  cases  to  some  maladjustment  of  the  brackets  which 
hold  the  bearings.  The  remedy  in  the  first  case  is  obvious ; 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  47 

in  the  other  a  lining  up  of  the  bearings  on  which  or  through 
which  the  shaft  works  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

THE  CLUTCH. 

Symptoms:  Engine  runs  fast,  though  car  travels  slowly,  through 
clutch  slipping. — Clutch  bites  fiercely  or  jerkily. — Will  not  engage 
or  come  out  of  engagement. 

Causes:  Slipping  caused  by  oil  or  weak  spring. — Fierce  or  jerky 
through  leather  hard,  dry,  worn,  or  through  protruding  rivets.— 
Jammed. — Wrong  adjustment. — Insufficient  play  for  clutch  pedal. — 
Clutch  remains  slightly  in  contact  when  pedal  operated,  through 
leather  being  swollen. — In  the  case  of  disk  clutches  want  of  or  im- 
proper lubrication  or  improper  lubricant. 

There  are  several  different  descriptions  of  clutches.  A 
common  type  is  the  conical  friction  clutch,  of  which  the  fly- 
wheel forms  the  female  portion,  whereas  the  male  portion  is 
connected  to  the  shaft  which  communicates  with  the  gear 
shaft.  This  type  of  clutch  is  likely  to  suffer  from  either  mud 
or  oil  getting  on  the  leather  bearing  surface,  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  should  be  cleaned  by  squirting  gasolene  between  the 
faces.  A  force  pump  is  useful  for  the  purpose ;  the  leather 
should  then  be  treated  with  castor  or  clutch  oil,  preferably 
applied  warm. 

i.  A  Slipping  Clutch. — This  trouble  can  be  located  by  the 
ear.  The  expert  can  tell  almost  at  once  if  the  engine  is  work- 
ing at  too  fast  a  pace  in  relation  to  the  speed  of  the  car.  If, 
however,  he  is  uncertain,  he  should  put  his  engine  out  of  gear, 
dismount,  and  feel  the  male  portion  of  the  clutch  with  his 
hand.  If  the  clutch  has  been  slipping,  the  friction  will  have 
caused  it  to  become  hot.  The  slipping  is  usually  due  to  oil 
on  the  bearing  surface.  Wash  with  gasolene,  as  already  des- 
cribed, and  then  apply  slaked  lime  or  fuller's  earth.  Con- 
tinuous slipping  may  burn  the  leather,  necessitating  its  re- 
moval and  replacement. 

Sometimes  the  trouble  is  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the 
spring  on  the  male  portion  of  the  clutch  not  being  sufficient. 
This  can  be  remedied  by  fitting  an  additional  washer,  or  sub- 
stituting a  new  spring.  In  some  cases  there  is  a  special  ar- 


48  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

rangement  for  adjusting  the  tension  of  the  spring.  A  shoulder 
may  also  wear  on  the  leather,  which  prevents  the  clutch  go- 
ing in  far  enough  to  engage,  thus  causing  slipping.  When 
this  state  of  affairs  is  set  up  the  leather  should  be  replaced. 
A  temporary  remedy  may  be  obtained  by  clearing  away  the 
upstanding  edge  of  leather  with  a  rasp. 

2.  Leather  Hard  and  Dry. — When,  through  neglect,  the 
leather  of  a  leather-faced  clutch  becomes  hard  and  dry,  the 
clutch  may  possibly  slip  if  let  in  quietly,  but  will  grip  fiercely 
if  let  in  more  suddenly.  If  the  slip  is  caused  through  over- 
lubrication,  it  will  be  continuous,  but  when  due  to  the  surface 
being  dry  and  polished  it  operates  in  a  different  manner.  It 
can  be  easily  understood  that  once  the  grip  between  any  two 
surfaces  is  overcome,  the  tendency  to  slip  is  increased.  In 
starting  gradually,  of  course,  the  clutch  is  allowed  to  slip,  and 
the  trouble  with  the  hard,  dry  clutch  is  that  it  continues  to  do 
so,  but  when  let  in  suddenly  it  does  not  begin  to  slip,  and, 
consequently,  grips  firmly,  though  this  method  of  letting  in 
the  clutch  is  most  detrimental.  Generally,  however,  a  hard, 
dry  clutch  leather  does  not  slip,  but  grips  fiercely. 

To  get  the  clutch  leather  soft  and  pliable  once  more,  sluice 
the  clutch  well  with  kerosene,  letting  the  clutch  in  and  out, 
and  turning  it  round  during  the  operation,  so  that  every  por- 
tion of  the  leather  is  treated.  The  clutch  may  next  be  treated 
with  gasolene  so  as  to  clear  the  kerosene  out  of  it,  and  then, 
when  dry,  should  have  castor  oil,  or  any  of  the  special  dress- 
ings sold  for  the  purpose,  well  brushed  into  it. 

In  most  modern  cars  having  leather  in  the  clutch,  the  male 
member  of  the  clutch  can  be  readily  dismantled,  and  when 
this  is  the  case  the  treatment  of  the  leather  becomes  much 
easier  and  more  convenient. 

To  maintain  the  clutch  in  good  condition  afterwards,  ap- 
ply a  very  small  quantity  of  castor  or  neatsfoot  oil  at  regular 
intervals,  and  should  the  clutch  slip  through  overapplication, 
wash  out  with  gasolene.  After  such  treatment  it  is  advisable 
to  keep  the  clutch  out  of  engagement  for  a  few  hours  by  plac- 
ing a  heavy  weight  on  the  operating  pedal. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  49 

3.  Too  Fierce  a   Clutch. — This  is  a  very  unpleasant  fail- 
ing, as  it  is  impossible  to  let  the  clutch  home  gently,  and  so 
take  up  the  drive  of  the  car  without  a  severe  jerk  and  strain. 
The  application  of  dry  graphite  is  the  best  remedy,  so  that 
the   clutch   will   slip   a   little   when   first   applied.     Oil  mixed 
with  a  little  kerosene  may  also  prove  effective,  but  it  may 
result  in  making  the  clutch  slip  too  much.     The  trouble  is 
generally  due  to  the  clutch  leather  becoming  dry  and  harsh 
from  want  of  attention.     Regular  dressing  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  castor  or  neatsfoot  oil  is   the   best  preventive.     The 
clutch  may  slip  a  little  at  first  after  application,  but  this  will 
soon  stop.     Protruding  rivets  also  tend  to   make  the   clutch 
grip  fiercely. 

4.  Worn  Leathers. — In  process  of  time  the  leather  is  liable 
to  wear.     If  the  wear  is  uneven  the  clutch  will  grip  in  jerks. 
In  case  of  excessive  wear  the  clutch  may  fail  altogether  to 
act.    In  both  cases  it  will  have  to  be  relined.     If  possible,  the 
old  leather  should  be  removed  intact,  as  a  guide  when  cutting 
the  new  one.    This  should  be  taken  from  the  thick  part  of  the 
hide  and  fitted  rough  side  out.     Great  care  must  be  taken  to 
countersink  the  holes  for  the  rivet  heads  about  i-i6th  of  an 
inch,  so  that  they  rest  below  the  surface  of  the  leather. 

5.  Clutch  Rivets  Protruding. — The  leather  is  usually  fixed 
to  the  metal  center  of  the  clutch  by  copper  rivets,  whose  heads 
are  countersunk.     If  these  rivets  are  not  originally  counter- 
sunk sufficiently,  or  if  through  wear  of  the  leather  they  be- 
come level  with  the  surface,  the  clutch  may  grip  fiercely  when 
applied,  and  may  even  seize  or  jam.     To  allow  for  wear  and 
compression  the  rivets  should  be  originally  i-i6th  of  an  inch 
below  the  outer  surface  of  the  leather. 

6.  Jammed  Clutch. — 'Clutches  are  generally  made  to  slide 
along  a  shaft  so  that  they  can  be  put  in  or  out  of  gear,  and 
when  worn,  insufficiently  lubricated,  or  not  mounted  in  line 
grip  fiercely  when  applied,  and  may  even   seize  or  jam.     A 
clutch  may  jam  when  out  of  gear  and  refuse  to  spring  into 
place  when  the  lever  is  released  through  want  of  lubrication 
between  the  clutch  and  the  shaft,  or  the  spring  by  which  it  is 


50  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

forced  into  place  may  have  lost  its  power  by  becoming  soft 
or  broken,  or  there  may  be  some  unevenness  of  the  sliding 
bearing  which  prevents  the  clutch  going  home.  Very  often 
the  clutch  may  be  made  to  engage  in  an  emergency  by  putting 
the  toe  under  the  pedal. 

A  clutch  may  also  appear  to  take  its  proper  place  and  yet 
continually  slip ;  this,  again,  may  be  due  to  the  bearing,  or 
to  its  being  out  of  line  with  the  fly-wheel,  and  can  be  invest- 
igated by  slipping  a  knife  blade  round  the  leather  face  when 
in  position.  If  the  blade  is  loose  on  one  side  and  tight  on  the 
other,  it  will  show  that  the  shaft  is  not  in  line.  This  trouble 
is  often  accompanied  with  noise  and  harshness,  especially 
when  starting.  In  such  cases  it  may  be  due  to  the  under- 
frame  of  the  car  having  warped  or  got  out  of  alignment  with 
the  main  frame,  so  that  the  clutch  shaft  and  the  engine  shaft 
are  not  in  the  same  plane. 

The  leather  covering,  unless  very  evenly  put  on,  may  pre- 
vent the  clutch  taking  its  proper  position,  and  must  be  pared 
in  the  tight  places.  A  clutch  may  also  become  jammed  when 
in  position  and  refuse  to  come  out  of  engagement.  This  is 
generally  due  to  the  guide  piece  which  projects  from  the  shaft 
and  runs  in  a  spigot  bearing  becoming  scored,  and  eventually 
getting  jammed  in  its  bearing.  Want  of  lubrication  is  the 
cause,  or  jamming  may  result  from  the  rivet  heads  protruding 
through  the  clutch  leather.  Trouble  may  also,  though  very 
seldom,  be  caused  through  broken  balls  in  the  bearing  in  the 
fly-wheel.  If  the  bearing  locks  in  consequence  the  clutch  may 
jam. 

Sometimes  the  clutch  leather  swells  from  the  effect  of  wet, 
and  takes  up  the  drive  jerkily.  Wedge  the  clutch  open  and 
apply  fuller's  earth  to  absorb  the  moisture,  then  brush  off  the 
fuller's  earth  and  apply  clutch  oil  or  other  dressing. 

In  the  De  Dion  type  of  expanding  clutch,  jamming  may 
be  due  to  want  of  oil  in  the  gear  case,  or  to  faulty  adjustment. 
In  this  type  the  slipping  of  the  clutch  is  generally  due  to 
faulty  adjustment. 

7.     Wrong  Adjustment. — Wrong  adjustment   of  the   actu- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  51 

ating  mechanism  is  a  frequent  source  of  trouble.  The  rods 
and  levers  must  be  so  adjusted  as  to  let  the  male  portion  of 
the  clutch  right  home  when  the  foot  is  removed  from  the 
pedal.  The  adjustment  is  further  complicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  brake  levers  are  often  connected  up  in  such  a  manner 
that  when  the  brake  is  applied  the  clutch  is  withdrawn. 

Disk  or  plate  clutches  have  during  the  last  few  years  come 
into  extensive  use.  They  seldom  get  out  of  order  except 
through  lack  of  or  improper  lubrication.  If  the  lubrication  is 
neglected,  the  plates  or  disks  may  seize,  which  is  a  serious 
trouble,  and  may  necessitate  the  renewal  of  some  or  all  of 
them.  The  lubricant  should  be  of  such  a  consistency  as  not 
to  gum  up.  If  the  oil  is  too  thick  the  plates  or  disks  may  not 
disengage  quickly  or  easily,  while  if  too  thin,  it  may  not  lub- 
ricate them  sufficiently.  The  makers'  instruction  as  to  the  oil 
to  be  used  and  the  quantity  should  be  followed. 

In  some  types  of  disk  clutches  the  edges  are  split  to  form 
flat  springs,  which  prevent  the  too  sudden  engagement  of  the 
clutch,  and  also  allow  of  its  quick  disengagement.  Adjust- 
ment is  always  provided  to  the  spring  which  keeps  the  plates 
or  disks  in  engagement. 

Sometimes  by  racing  the  engine  for  about  a  minute,  then 
throttling  off  and  getting  quickly  into  the  low  speed,  the 
plates  of  a  clutch  which  have  temporarily  seized  may  come 
apart. 

COMPRESSION— BAD. 

Symptoms:  Engine  loses  power,  and  very  little  resistance  shown 
when  starting  handle  is  turned. — Hissing  sound. — Slow  to  start — 
Misfires. — Overheating  (note  if  pressure  is  escaping  into  base 
chamber). 

Causes:  Escape  of  compressed  mixture  from  combustion  chamber 
from  following  causes. — Valves  pitted. — Valves  stuck  in  guides. — 
Valve  spindle  bent. — Valves  freshly  ground. — Faulty  joint  between 
the  seat  of  inlet  valve  and  combustion  chamber. — Cracks  in  com- 
bustion chamber  walls  or  valve  seatings. — Too  thin  lubricating  oil. — 
Slots  of  piston  rings  coinciding  with  each  other,  or  rings  sticking 
in  grooves. — Worn  rings. — Broken  rings. — Valve  spindles  too  long, 
or  springs  too  weak. — Spark  plug  cracked  or  broken;  gland  nut  loose; 


52  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

escape  between  core  and  metal;  washer  faulty. — Escape  of  pressure 
at  rocking  lever  or  igniter  plug  in  low  tension  magneto  ignition. — 
Compression  cock  open  or  leaking. 

If  there  is  no  compression  whatever,  it  will  generally  be 
found  that  a  valve  is  either  stuck  up  or  broken.  If  the  start- 
ing handle  can  be  more  easily  operated  than  usual,  or  if  a 
hissing  noise  as  of  escaping  air  is  heard,  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  the  compression  is  weak.  In  a  multi-cylinder  en- 
gine the  compression  cocks  in  all  but  one  cylinder  should  be 
opened  and  each  cylinder  tested  separately.  If  there  are  no 
cocks,  the  exhaust  valve  stems  should  be  lifted  and  held  up 
with  the  aid  of  a  screwdriver  or  suitable  (hand  inserted) 
wedge. 

The  best  way  to  definitely  locate  the  trouble  is  to  brush 
soapy  water  or  squirt  a  moderately  thick  oil  round  the  joints, 
etc.,  and  then  watch  for  bubbles  rising,  while  the  crankshaft 
is  being  revolved  by  hand,  with  the  ignition,  of  course, 
switched  off.  This  leakage  may  proceed  from  any  part  of  the 
cylinder  head  where  there  is  a  joint — as,  for  example,  at  the 
spark  plug,  at  the  exhaust  valve,  between  the  cylinder  walls 
and  piston  rings,  at  the  inlet  valve,  under  the  inlet  and  ex- 
haust caps  or  flange  joints,  and,  in  the  case  of  engines  having 
detachable  combustion  heads  or  plates,  on  top  of  same,  at 
their  jointings. 

An  advantage  in  testing  by  hand-operating  the  crankshaft 
is  that  it  enables  the  noise  due  to  leakage  of  compression  to  be 
more  clearly  noted,  besides  making  it  easier  to  handle  the 
parts  affected.  Soap  of  oil  bubbles  due  to  the  above  cause 
are  then  more  readily  and  rightly  diagnosed,  whereas,  when 
the  combustion  chamber  becomes  heated,  such  bubbles  might 
really  be  produced  by  the  heat  acting  expansively  on  them. 
Leakage  at  the  valve  caps  may  be  suppressed  by  putting  a 
moderate  pressure  on  the  flange  nuts  or  screwed  caps,  as  the 
case  may  be.  If  such  fails,  take  off  the  cap  or  flange,  and  care- 
fully remove  the  existing  packing.  It  is  not  good  practice  to 
place  a  fresh  copper-asbestos  packing  washer  over  another. 
All  faced  joints  should  be  slightly  concave,  and  when  being 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  53 

faced  in  the  lathe  should  have  one  or  more  thin  rings  (accord- 
ing to  the  diameter  of  the  face),  about  i-i6th  inch  deep  and 
the  same  width  scribed  on  tne  surface.  It  is  a  mistake  to  use 
packing  of  too  great  thickness.  Flanged  joint  packing  should 
not  be  more  than  i-i6th  inch  thick,  and  made  of  only  best 
quality  asbestos  millboard,  the  jointing,  previous  to  using, 
being  soaked  in  boiled  oil  and  afterwards  dusted  on  both 
sides  with  powdered  graphite,  so  that  the  joint  may  be  easily 
taken  apart  without  breaking  the  packing.  The  use  of  red 
or  white  lead  is  not  to  be  recommended. 

All  nuts  holding  joints  should  be  again  tightened  after  the 
engine  has  warmed  up,  failing  which  they  will  often  be  found 
slack  when  it  becomes  cold,  and,  if  not  noted,  the  subsequent 
starting  of  the  engine  may  result  in  the  jointing  being  blown 
out,  or  leakage  may  become  apparent.  Always  note  that  the 
threads  of  all  studs  or  valve  caps  reach  well  above  or  below, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  flange  or  hole.  There  should  be  at 
least  three  full  threads  below  the  top  of  a  flange  when  the 
same  is  bolted  down.  Failure  to  note  this  point  may  lead  to 
the  breaking  of  a  stud,  or  in  the  case  of  a  screwed  cap,  in- 
ability to  tighten  it  in  place,  the  result  being  a  partial  loss  of 
compression. 

A  broken  or  bent  valve,  broken  spring,  or  too  weak  spring, 
or  a  valve  spindle  which  is  too  long,  and  thus  prevents  the 
valve  from  closing,  will  also  cause  a  leakage.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  well  to  remember  that  metal  expands  with  heat, 
and  consequently,  though  there  may  be  no  loss  of  compres- 
sion at  starting,  when  the  spindle  heats  it  will  become  slightly 
longer,  and  if  there  is  no  clearance  when  hot  this  may  result 
in  the  valve  not  seating  properly.  The  valve  may  get  stuck 
up  through  a  bent  spindle  or  a  clogged  guide,  or  owing  to  a 
weak  spring  may  close  so  sluggishly  as  to  permit  an  escape 
of  pressure. 

The  next  point  is  to  examine  the  valves  themselves.  They 
should  be  carefully  cleaned  and  examined  to  see  if  they  are 
pitted,  as  if  this  is  the  case  there  will  be  a  loss  of  compres- 
sion, and  they  must  be  carefully  re-ground.  Much  time  in 


54  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

grinding  may  be  saved  by  at  once  noting  if  the  seating  line 
on  the  valve  face  shows  up  almost  perfect  over  its  circum- 
ference. If  not,  this  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the 
spindle  is  bent,  or  that  the  head  is  distorted.  A  further  trial 
by  "chucking"  the  spindle  in  a  self-centering  lathe-chuck  will 
prove  the  point.  If  appreciably  out  of  true  it  is  advisable 
to  substitute  a  new  valve,  leaving  the  other  to  be  dealt  with 
at  leisure.  After  grinding  a  valve  or  fitting  a  new  one,  the 
compression  will  not  be  absolutely  perfect  until  the  car  has 
run  some  distance.  Grit  under  a  valve  will,  of  course,  pre- 
vent it  seating  and  allow  of  an  escape.  Cleaning  will  remove 
that  trouble.  See  Valves. 

Leakage  at  or  through  the  spark  plug  is  another  cause  of 
trouble.  As  regards  the  former,  it -is  usually  remedied  by 
screwing  home  the  plug  or  substituting  a  new  washer,  in 
which  case  it  will  be  well  to  again  tighten  the  plug  after  the 
engine  has  been  running  a  little  time.  If  there  is  still  a  leak- 
age here  try  a  second  copper-asbestos  washer.  It  is  advisable 
to  note  that  some  forms  of  porcelain  plugs  require  the  gland 
nut  to  be  tightened  after  a  brief  usage,  failing  which  the  cen- 
tral or  positive  pole  will  loosen  and  turn,  causing  misfiring  or 
actual  failure  of  the  spark.  There  may  also  be  an  escape  be- 
tween the  insulating  core  and  the  metal  of  the  plug,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  plug  being  cracked  or  broken.  The  remedy 
is  to  replace  the  plug  if,  after  screwing  down  the  gland  nut, 
no  better  result  is  obtained.  Leakage  here  will  show  in  the 
form  of  a  brown  deposit  on  the  white  surface  of  the  por- 
celain. 

In  the  case  of  low-tension  magneto  ignition,  an  escape 
sometimes  occurs  where  the  spindle  of  the  rocking  lever  pen- 
etrates the  side  of  the  combustion  chamber.  It  will  need 
cleaning  and  grinding.  (See  Ignition,  in  the  articles  that 
follow.) 

Bad  compression  also  results  from  leakage  past  the  piston 
rings,  and  can  be  best  diagnosed  by  feeling  the  base  cham- 
ber. Excessive  heat  there  is  a  sure  index.  Sometimes  the 
rings  become  stuck  in  the  grooves  owing  to  burnt  oil,  and 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  55 

fail  to  make  a  gas  tight  joint.  Remedy:  pour  in  gasolene  or 
kerosene  on  top  of  piston,  and  work  the  starting  handle.  If 
this  is  not  successful  the  rings  may  have  to  be  removed  arid 
treated  as  described  under  Piston  Troubles  in  the  following 
pages. 

Some  engines  appear  to  have  perfect  compression  when 
cold,  but  not  when  hot,  due  to  badly  formed  castings  which 
are  not  properly  water-jacketed,  so  that  when  hot  the  valve 
seat  is  distorted  and  the  valves  do  not  completely  shut.  In 
modern  engines  this  fault  rarely  occurs. 

CONNECTING  ROD  OR  CRANKSHAFT  BROKEN. 

Symptoms:  Knock  in  crank  case. — Sudden  stoppage,  accompanied 
by  loud,  clanging  noise  in  cylinder  and  crank  case. 

Causes:  Premature  ignition. — Wrong  timing  of  ignition. — Clutch 
let  in  suddenly. — Seized  piston  through  lack  of  lubrication. — Brakes 
applied  forcibly  with  clutch  in  engagement. 

These  breakages  are  of  rare  occurence,  and  the  repair  is 
too  difficult  to  undertake  except  in  a  well-equipped  shop. 

Prevention  is  better  than  cure,  however,  and  therefore  we 
shall  enumerate  the  most  likely  causes : — Any  unusual  strain, 
such  as  that  caused  by  too  early  firing;  two  or  more  cylinders 
firing  against  each  other;  too  severe  a  strain  caused  by  de- 
laying too  long  in  changing  gears  on  a  gradient,  which  has 
the  effect  of  making  the  engine  labor;  severe  shock,  such  as 
suddenly  altering  the  speed  of  the  engine;  interference  with 
the  free  motion  of  the  pistons  through  insufficient  lubrication, 
causing  them  to  seize.  The  sudden  letting  in  of  a  fierce  clutch 
with  the  engine  racing,  as  has  been  the  practice  in  starting 
on  hill-climbing  competitions,  puts  an  enormous  strain  on 
crankshaft  and  rods,  and  should  therefore  be  avoided.  The 
strain  on  every  part  of  the  mechanism  is  great,  and  will  take 
more  out  of  the  life  of  a  car  than  many  miles  of  careful 
driving. 

The  sudden  application  of  the  brakes  without  taking  out 
the  clutch  when  the  car  is  traveling  fast  is  also  liable  to  put 
too  great  a  strain  on  the  engine  shaft  and  connecting  rods. 


56  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

CYLINDER  TROUBLES. 

Symptoms:  Loss  of  compression. — Engine  power  weakens. — Mis- 
fires.— Escape  of  water. 

Causes:  Cracks  in  cylinder  jacket. — Cracks  in  water  jacket. — Blow 
holes  in  cylinder  casting. — Scoring  of  cylinder  by  end  of  a  loose 
piston  pin. 

Other  troubles  which  arise  inside  the  cylinder,  but  which 
cannot  be  classified  as  cylinder  troubles,  are  the  following: 
— Knock,  due  to  seizing  of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder  (see 
Knock)  ;  loss  of  compression  (see  Compression — Bad ;  Pis- 
ton) ;  crack  due  to  freezing  of  water  in  circulation  system 
(see  Circulation)  ;  leaking  valves  (see  Valves).  These  refer- 
ences deal  principally  with  headings  in  this  volume,  but  the 
reader  may  with  profit  secure  additional  information  on  these 
subjects  from  that  exhaustive  work,  the  American  Cyclopedia 
of  the  Automobile,  which  treats  of  them  in  great  detail. 

Little  trouble  is  to  be  anticipated  so  far  as  the  cylinder  it- 
self is  concerned,  provided  the  piston  is  kept  well  lubricated. 
At  first,  and  until  the  piston  rings  have,  as  it  were,  properly 
bedded  themselves  to  the  cylinder  walls,  the  compression  will 
not  be  particularly  good.  The  same  effect  will  be  noticeable 
when  the  rings  have  lost  their  elasticity  or  become  cracked, 
or  in  the  event  of  the  slots  in  any  pair  working  into  a  common 
line. 

As  regards  trouble  from  the  cylinder  casting  itself,  the  chief 
danger  is  that  due  to  a  burst  water  jacket.  This  may  arise 
from  the  water  freezing  in  the  cylinder  jacket  and  expanding 
in  frosty  weather,  if  the  radiator  and  jacket  have  not  previ- 
ously been  emptied  (see  Water  Circulation,  in  the  articles 
that  follow)  ;  or,  in  the  event  of  the  cylinder  having  over- 
heated by  reason  of  a  failure  of  the  pump  or  some  other  ob- 
struction to  the  flow  of  the  circulating  water.  If  overheating 
occurs  through  this  derangement  of  the  pump  or  other  obstruc- 
tion, it  is  dangerous  to  immediately  pour  cold  water  into 
the  radiator,  and  even  more  dangerous  in  the  case  of  a  leak  of 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  57 

water  in  the  circulation  system. 

A  further  ill-effect  where  excessive  overheating  has  taken 
place  may  be  looked  for  in  a  partial  distortion  of  both  the 
cylinder  and  the  valves.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the 
driver  when  on  a  journey  should  frequently  satisfy  himself 
that  the  circulation  is  working  correctly.  In  that  respect  a 
manometer  or  little  pressure  gauge,  fixed  to  the  dashboard, 
will  be  found  useful,  but  is  not  absolutely  to  be  depended 
on. 

In  the  event  of  a  leakage,  care  must  be  taken  to  discover 
the  cause ;  a  suspected  crack  may  often  lead  one  astray,  and 
the  leakage  be  traceable  to  a  trickling  or  leaky  union,  or 
(in  the  case  of  engines  having  detachable  top  or  side  metal 
plates  or  doors  to  the  cylinder  jacket)  to  a  leaking  joint. 
Fractures  in  the  surface  of  the  jacket  are  usually  intimated  by 
a  sweating  of  moisture,  which  will  quickly  reappear  on  wip- 
ing or  drying  the  parts.  This  species  of  crack  will  sometimes 
only  reveal  its  presence  when  the  engine  is  running.  An- 
other type  of  crack  is  at  once  noticeable  by  the  line  of  frac- 
ture being  readily  visible.  Minute  leakage,  due  to  blowholes 
in  the  casting,  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  fracture. 

We  will  deal  with  each  in  turn.  (It  must  be  understood 
that  we  deal  only  with  fractures  in  the  exterior  walls  of  the 
cylinder  jacket.  Fracture  in  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  itself 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  repaired,  and  where  such  occur,  a 
new  cylinder  casting  complete  should  be  procured.)  Minor 
cracks  of  the  first  order  may  be  treated — if  there  be  plenty  of 
working  space  in  the  region  of  the  crack — by  first  filing  to  a 
bright  surface  the  two  sides  of  the  spot,  and  then  tinning  the 
surface  with  solder,  using  tinsmith's  ordinary  killed  spirits  of 
salts  as  a  flux.  Where  the  casting  suggests  porosity,  or  a 
tendency  to  sweat,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  fill  up  the  jacket 
(having  first  plugged  the  pipe  unions)  with  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  sal  ammoniac,  and  leave  it  for  a  couple  of  days.  A 
further  period  for  hardening  after  running  off  the  sal  ammon- 
iac solution  must  be  followed  by  a  rinsing  with  fresh  water. 


58  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Where  the  crack  is  a  gaping  one,  which  is,  in  modern 
practice,  very  improbable,  the  best  remedy  is  a  patch  of 
soft  plate  iron  screwed  upon  the  jacket  by  means  of  small 
screws  and  packed  by  a  thin  layer  of  asbestos  millboard. 
This  is  essentially  a  workshop  job,  to  be  done  by  skilled 
mechanics. 

A  blow-hole  of  any  size  should  at  once  be  drilled  and 
tapped  to  take  a  metal  plug  of  sufficient  diameter  to  clear  all 
traces  of  the  spongy  part. 

Where  cylinders  have  been  cracked  through  both  outside 
and  inside  walls  the  repair  is  extremely  difficult,  but  we  have 
heard  of  good  repairs  being  made  in  such  cases  by  a  patented 
process  of  burning  together  new  parts.  They  require  after- 
wards to  be  remachined. 

If  the  cylinder  walls  get  appreciably  scored  through  the 
piston  seizing,  or  from  any  other  cause,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  have  them  re-lapped,  or  in  a  bad  case  even  re-bored.  A 
new  piston  in  the  latter  case  will  be  necessary. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  piston  pin  comes  adrift  in 
a  piston  and,  moving  sideways,  scores  the  cylinder  walls. 
Before  it  can  become  so  loose  as  to  do  this,  however,  con- 
siderable knock  will  be  set  up  in  the  engine.  If  this  knock 
(see  Knock,  in  this  series  of  articles)  is  attended  to  at  once, 
the  saving  of  the  replacement  of  the  piston  in  the  cylinder 
may  be  effected.  If  the  end  of  the  piston  pin  has  scored  the  in- 
side walls  of  the  cylinder  to  any  extent,  the  power  of  the 
engine  will  be  very  greatly  reduced,  and  the  only  remedy  will 
be  the  re-boring  of  the  cylinder  and  the  fitting  of  a  new  piston 
and  rings.  In  extreme  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  fit  new 
cylinders. 

THE  DIFFERENTIAL. 

Symptoms:     Grating  noise. 

Causes:  Teeth  of  pinions  or  driving  bevels  stripped. — Shaft  bear- 
ings want  adjusting. — Road  wheels  require  adjusting. 

In  modern  motor  vehicles  there  is  little  probability  of  any 
derangement  to  the  teeth  of  the  differential  pinions  or  crown 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  59 

and  bevel  wheels.  Such  can  only  occur  through  bad  adjust- 
ment of  the  sleeve  which  carries  the  short  shaft  on  which  the 
bevel  pinion  revolves.  Little  adjustment  is  required  here,  and 
if  any  becomes  necessary  through  wear  it  will  be  best  effected 
by  the  makers  of  the  car  or  their  accredited  agents. 

If  such  serious  trouble  arises  as  to  cause  stripping  of  the 
teeth  of  any  of  the  wheels  or  pinions  in  the  differential,  then 
the  car  should  not  be  run  further,  and  the  repair  or  replace- 
ment should  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  makers. 

Proper  adjustment  of  the  wheel  bearings  and  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  lubrication  of  the  differential  gear  should  prevent 
the  possibility  of  derangement  in  this  part  of  the  mechanism 
of  any  really  well  made  car. 

THE  GOVERNOR. 

Symptoms:  Engine  suddenly  accelerates. — Hunts. — Difficulty  in 
keeping  engine  running  at  constant  speeds. — Engine  runs  dead  and 
picks  up  badly. — Loss  of  power. 

Causes:  Springs  too  strong,  too  weak,  or  broken. — Sticking  of 
governor  arms,  toggles,  or  the  sliding  sleeve  and  grooved  collar 
which  communicate  motion  to  the  throttle  operating  mechanism. — 
Backlash  and  bad  adjustment  of  operating  rods  and  mechanism. — 
Actuating  rods  wrongly  adjusted. — Accelerator  wrongly  adjusted. 

This  part  of  the  mechanism  is  formed  on  a  well-known 
principle.  Its  most  serious  defect  is  a  tendency  for  the  springs 
to  weaken  from  use,  with  the  result  that  the  governor  comes 
into  action  too  soon,  and  the  engine  fails  to  give  its  full  power. 
It  is  essential  that  the  springs  should  be  exactly  of  the  right 
tension.  Want  of  lubrication  may  cause  the  arms  carrying  the 
governor  weights  to  stick.  Hunting,  too,  is  another  trouble 
to  which  the  governor  is  liable,  as  when  the  load  is  suddenly 
taken  off.  If  the  accelerator  or  actuating  rods  are  wrongly 
adjusted  the  governor  may  not  come  into  action  properly, 
or  may  come  into  action  too  late  and  cause  a  sudden  open- 
ing or  closing  of  the  throttle.  This  can  only  be  remedied 
by  rebushing  the  holes  in  the  actuating  rods  or  reamer- 
ing  them  out  and  fitting  new  and  larger  hardened  pins. 


6o  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

THE  IGNITION. 

Symptoms:  Car  moves  sluggishly  and  jerkily. — Car  stops. — Mis- 
firing.— Smells. — Explosions. — Knock. — Harsh  running. 

Causes:  Short  circuits  in  spark  plugs,  igniter,  coil,  wiring,  contact 
maker,  contact  breaker,  distributer,  condenser,  battery.— Battery  run 
down. — Spasmodic  working  of  circuit. — Preignition  due  to  overheat- 
ing.— Timing  wrong. — Loss  of  compression  at  rocking  lever  of  igniter. 
— Disconnection  of  condenser. 

The  ignition,  unless  properly  understood,  may  become  the 
most  fruitful  source  of  trouble,  particularly  in  the  case  of  the 
beginner.  It  is  therefore  well  worth  while  to  study  it  care- 
fully. 

Short  Circuits. 

The  electric  current  will  always  travel  by  the  path  which 
affords  the  least  resistance.  The  resistance  to  the  spark  jump- 
ing between  the  points  of  the  plug  is  very  considerable,  and 
consequently  there  is  a  great  tendency  for  the  current  to  take 
a  path  of  less  resistance.  The  immediate  result  is  that  the 
spark  in  the  combustion  chamber  fails  altogether  through  want 
of  pressure,  or  becomes  so  attenuated  as  to  be  insufficient  to 
ignite  the  charge  properly.  Short  circuits  either  in  the  high 
or  low  tension  circuits  have  the  same  result,  but  are  more 
liable  to  be  found  in  the  high  tension  circuit. 

To  cause  a  spark  to  pass  at  the  points  of  a  spark  plug,  even 
in  the  open  air,  requires  considerable  electrical  pressure  or 
voltage,  and  this  voltage  must  be  very  much  increased  to 
produce  the  spark  under  the  working  conditions  met  with  in- 
side the  cylinder  of  an  internal  combustion  engine.  Not  only 
the  high  compression  in  the  cylinder,  but  also  the  gas  mixture, 
tends  to  very  considerably  increase  the  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  the  current,  and  hence  reduces  the  sparking  effect. 
Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  a  good  spark  in 
air"  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  same  good  spark  will 
pass  when  the  engine  is  at  work. 

A  weak  spark  may  fire  a  charge  under  slight  compression, 
but  fail  under  full  compression ;  hence  it  may  fire  the  charge 
at  low  speed,  but  fail  at  fast  speed. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  61 

Any  source  of  current  capable  of  discharging  across  the 
plug  at  the  rate  of  one  to  three  amperes  at  4.2  volts  pressure 
is  suitable  for  sparking  purposes.  Few  engines  will  run  well 
with  less  voltage  or  electrical  pressure. 

If  the  dry  battery  or  storage  battery  (accumulator)  is  giv- 
ing a  current  of  the  above  strength  and  the  sparking  is  still 
defective,  it  is  safe  to  look  for  the  fault  elsewhere.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  either  dry  cells  or  storage  batteries,  but  espe- 
cially the  former,  are  capable  of  giving  such  a  current  after 
a  brief  rest,  even  although  they  may  be  practically  exhausted 
so  that  testing  should  be  done  while  the  engine  is  running 
or  immediately  after,  otherwise  the  true  working  pressure  will 
not  be  shown  by  the  testing  instrument. 

As  defective  sparking  is  due  in  most  cases  to  battery  trouble, 
it  saves  considerable  time  to  try  the  effect  of  a  new  one  before 
searching  for  faults  elsewhere. 

In  the  case  of  persistent  misfires,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  get  the 
loan  of  another  coil  and  see  if  the  engine  will  then  run  satis- 
factorily. If  it  does,  the  motorist  will  know  that  the  short 
circuit  is  in  the  coil. 

In  magneto  machines  the  permanent  magnets  after  a 
lengthy  period  may  lose  their  strength,  and  require  to  be  remag- 
netized.  They  should  be  sent  to  the  makers  for  this  purpose. 

In  high  tension  ignition  using  a  coil  and  a  dry  or  storage 
battery,  short  circuits  are  likely  to  occur  in  the  following  units : 

1.  The  Wires  and  Connections.  5.     The  Distributer. 

2.  The  Switch.  6.     The  Spark  Plug. 

3.  The   Contact   Maker.  7.     The  Coil. 

4.  The  Contact  Breaker.  8.     The  Battery. 
(See  Short  Circuits  in  Table  II,  at  beginning  of  the  present 

work.) 

(i.)  The  Wires — With  the  constant  jar  and  vibration  of 
a  motor  the  connections  of  the  wires  are  apt  to  loosen, 
setting  up  great  resistance  for  the  current  to  overcome  in 
its  circuit ;  also,  due  to  the  vibration,  they  may  only  close 
the  circuit  intermittently,  and  no  current  may  pass  at  the 
moment  it  is  required  to  produce  a  spark.  Where  any  of 


62  'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  connections  are  placed  in  positions  in  which  they  are 
subjected  to  wet,  oil,  mud,  grease,  etc.,  these  substances  are 
very  likely  to  find  their  way  between  the  bearing  surfaces  of 
the  connections.  Moisture  when  present  is  a  good  conductor, 
but  when  it  evaporates  it  leaves  a  rusty  or  dirty  deposit 
behind,  which  will  offer  a  considerable  resistance  to  the  cur- 
rent, if  it  does  not  entirely  prevent  it  passing.  Oil  is  particu- 
larly likely,  on  account  of  its  creeping  properties,  to  find  its 
way  between  the  connections  and  prevent  the  current  passing. 
If  the  joint  is  tight,  however,  it  can  do  no  harm. 

Examine  all  the  connections  to  make  sure  that  they  are 
not  loose.  If  they  are  dirty,  wash  with  gasolene  and  scrape 
the  faces  which  form  contact,  and  then  rub  with  fine  emery 
paper.  See  that  the  connections  to  the  battery  are  secure, 
and  that  the  acid,  if  a  storage  battery  is  being  used,  has  not 
corroded  the  contacts.  A  thorough  cleaning  with  ammonia 
followed  by  an  application  of  vaseline,  will  prove  an  excellent 
protector. 

If  this  cursory  examination  should  not  disclose  any  fault  dis- 
connect the  wire  from  the  sparking  plug,  and  with  the  switch 
in  position  hold  the  wire  by  the  insulated  portion  (preferably 
with  gloves  on)  within  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the 
metal  of  the  engine,  and  get  someone  to  turn  the  starting 
handle,  or  vibrate  the  trembler  in  case  of  a  make-and-break 
contact  maker.  Great  care  should,  howrever,  be  exercised  in 
carrying  out  this  test,  for  should  the  wire  be  held  at  too  great 
a  distance  from  the  engine  for  the  current  to  pass,  the  jump 
may  take  place  inside  the  coil,  by  perforating  the  insulation 
therein.  If  this  is  repeated  a  sufficient  number  of  times,  it 
eventually  ruins  the  insulation,  and  may  happen  with  even 
the  highest  class  coil. 

If  a  good  spark  passes,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that 
the  connections  are  not  loose,  nor  the  wires  faulty,  and  the 
sparking  plug  should  next  be  examined,  as  explained  later. 

If,  however,  no  spark,  or  a  weak  spark,  passes,  the  wires 
should  be  examined  for  short  circuits  or  breaks.  Each  length 
of  wire  should  be  carefully  examined  to  make  sure  that  the 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  63 

insulation  has  not  become  worn  through  chafing  against  any 
portion  of  the  frame,  'or  burnt  through  contact  with  the  en- 
gine or  exhaust  pipe,  thus  allowing  the  current  to  escape. 
If  this  is  found  to  be  the  case,  the  defective  place  should  be 
bound  with  insulated  tape,  or  the  wire  run  through  a  rubber 
tube,  or  a  new  wire  fitted. 

All  wires  should  be  carefully  protected  from  friction  against 
pipes,  tanks,  etc.,  and  where  the  wires  are  supported,  they 
should  be  wrapped  round  with  some  extra  protective  material. 
A  piece  of  good  rubber  pipe  large  enough  to  slip  over  the 
wire  forms  an  excellent  and  easily-fixed  protection.  Metal 
staples  are  a  convenient  mode  of  fastening  wires  to  timber, 
but  great  care  must  be  taken  when  using  them  to  see  that 
they  do  not  pierce  the  insulation,  and  it  is  always  safer  to  slip 
in  a  piece  of  sheet  rubber  between  the  staple  and  wire  before 
driving  it  home.  Slips  of  leather  are  also  useful  means  for 
securing  wires. 

A  short  circuit  may  also  occur,  as  already  mentioned, 
through  defective  insulation  in  the  wiring  of  the  coil,  but 
this  can  be  traced  through  the  defective  working  of  the  coil 
itself. 

Water  acts  as  a  conductor,  and  if  the  insulation  is  satu- 
rated with  water  or  mud  this  may  be  the  cause  of  trouble. 
The  only  remedy  is  to  protect  the  wire  properly. 

A  short  circuit  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  the  high  tension 
wire,  which  runs  from  the  coil  to  the  spark  plug,  as  the  cur- 
rent running  through  this  is  of  high  voltage.  Special  pains 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  this  wire  is  well  insulated,  even 
to  the  extent  of  running  it  through  a  special  rubber  tube. 

To  determine  definitely  whether  the  low  tension  wiring 
is  at  fault  either  in  the  direction  of  "short"  or  of  breakage 
the  following  system  is  an  infallible  means,  provided  the 
very  highest  class  voltmeter  is  used.  A  cheap  article  does 
not  give  sufficiently  accurate  reading. 

To  test  for  short  circuits  connect  the  voltmeter  to  the 
battery  terminals  after  having  put  the  switch  and  the  contact 
maker  in  such  positions  that  the  current  cannot  flow.  Take 


64  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLED 

the  reading  of  the  voltmeter.  Now  complete  ths  metallic  cir- 
cuit by  means  of  the  switch  and  note  the  reading  of  the  volt- 
meter again.  If  the  reading  at  the  battery  is  lower,  it  shows 
that  there  is  a  short  circuit  somewhere  in  the  wiring,  and  that 
some  of  the  electricity  is  leaking  back  to  earth  and  hence  back 
to  the  battery  through  a  short  circuit. 

To  test  for  a  fractured  wire,  causing  a  broken  circuit,  put  the 
switch  in  the  "off"  position  and  place  the  contact  maker  blade 
or  wiper  in  such  a  position  that  the  current  would  flow  if  the 
switch  were  "on."  This  is  equivalent  to  an  open  circuit,  the 
switch  being  off.  Note  the  reading  of  the  voltmeter.  Now 
put  the  switch  in  the  "on"  position ;  the  voltmeter  should  give 
a  lower  reading  due  to  the  circuit  being  completed  through 
the  switch.  If  the  voltmeter  needle  remains  at  trie  same  point 
it  shows  that  the  circuit  still  remains  "open"  through 
the  medium  of  a  break  in  the  wiring.  The  same  test  can  be 
carried  out  in  the  case  of  the  make-and-break  system  of  con- 
tact maker  by  bringing  the  platinum  points  into  contact  in 
testing  for  a  "short,"  and  out  of  contact  when  testing  for  a 
break. 

To  locate  which  wire  is  in  fault,  disconnect  one  end  of 
the  wire  to  be  tested,  the  other  end  of  which  should  of 
course  be  in  contact  with  one  of  the  terminals  of  the  battery. 
To  this  wire  attach  one  wire  from  the  voltmeter.  Then  make 
momentary  contact  between  the  other  wire  of  the  voltmeter 
and  the  opposite  pole  of  the  battery.  If  the  wire  is  completely 
broken  no  current  will  pass.  If,  however,  there  is  a  short 
circuit,  the  indicator  will  show  a  lower  voltage  than  it  will 
show  when  its  wires  are  attached  to  the  terminals  of  the  bat- 
tery. If  a  voltmeter  is  not  available,  a  tiny  four-volt  lamp, 
such  as  is  used  for  testing  storage  batteries,  should  be  inserted 
in  the  circuit.  If  the  light  is  weak  it  will  indicate  a  leakage 
or  a  break.  A  broken  wire  must  be  replaced;  a  leak  may  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  insulating  tape. 

The  old  wife  may  be  made  to  do  temporary  duty  by  cut- 
ting it  across  at  the  broken  place,  peeling  back  the  insulation 
for  half  an  inch  on  either  side  of  the  break,  twisting  the 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  65 

wires  into  each  other,  and,  if  possible,  soldering  them,  the 
join  being  then  thickly  wound  round  with  insulating  tape. 
Should  there  be  a  breakage,  but  the  ends  remain  at  the  same 
time  touching,  it  is  often  most  difficult  to  locate,  because  the 
engine  will  run  intermittently. 

Persistent  trouble  with  wires  can  be  avoided  by  covering  all 
connections  with  sheet  rubber  bound  on  with  insulating  tape. 
In  case  of  chronic  failure  of  the  insulation,  re-wire  with  the 
best  insulated  wire. 

To  make  reliable  connections,  twist  the  numerous  small 
wires  into  one  solid  wire,  give  this  a  turn  around  a  piece 
of  metal  slightly  larger  in  diameter  than  the  screw  which 
is  to  pass  through  it.  Form  the  loop,  so  that  from  a  quarter 
to  half  an  inch  of  the  extreme  end  of  the  wire  will  lie  parallel 
to  the  main  piece  of  the  wire ;  bend  around  it  a  turn  or  two 
of  fine  wire  to  keep  it  in  place.  Solder  the  whole  together, 
including  the  loop,  being  careful  to  see  that  the  solder  runs 
well  into  the  center  of  the  wire.  Use  resin  as  a  flux.  Spirits 
of  salt  should  not  be  used  on  any  account.  Lay  the  loop  on  a 
flat  surface  and  slightly  flatten  it  with  a  few  blows  of  a 
smooth-faced  hammer,  to  give  a  good  contact  surface ;  then 
replace  the  wire  and  bind  with  insulating  tape.  It  pays  to 
take  the  greatest  care  with  all  connections. 

A  "short"  on  the  high  tension  wires  can  often  be  de- 
tected by  running  the  engine  in  the  dark,  when  a  spark  will 
be  seen  at  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  A  short  of  this  nature  is 
apt  to  ignite  a  gasolene  leakage.  Sometimes  it  is  due  to  the 
insulation  being  of  bad  quality.  To  test  this  point,  moisten 
the  wire  and  run  the  hand  over  it  while  the  engine  is  running 
If  any  shock  is  experienced  renew  the  wiring.  This  should  be 
done  when  the  other  hand  is  in  contact  with  some  metallic 
part  of  the  engine  or  mechanism. 

In  multi-cylinder  engines  the  high  tension  wires  should  be 
numbered  to  obviate  any  risk  of  attaching  them  to  the  wrong 
spark  plugs. 

Short  circuits  in  the  case  of  magneto  ignition  are  dealt  with 
under  "Magneto  Ignition"  toward  the  end  of  this  article. 


66  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

(2.)  The  Switch — Shorts  may  occur  at  the  switch ;  it  may 
fail  to  act  altogether  or  to  break  the  circuit  when  in  the  off 
position.  The  metallic  contacts  should  be  perfect,  and  the 
wiring  firmly  connected  to  the  switch  terminals.  To  test  for 
absolute  failure,  disconnect  the  wires  and  join  with  a  tem- 
porary connection.  If  the  engine  then  runs  perfectly  the 
switch  is  at  fault. 

To  test  for  failure  to  cut  off  the  current  when  in  the  off 
position,  operate  the  starting  handle ;  if  sparking  takes  place 
it  will  indicate  that  the  switch  is  not  breaking  the  continuity 
of  the  circuit.  The  trouble  may  be  due  to  straggling  wires 
getting  across  the  contacts. 

(3.)  The  Contact  Maker — The  contact  maker  is  very  often 
a  source  of  trouble  and  weak  sparking.  There  are  two  types — 
one  that  makes  contact  through  pressure  on  platinum  points, 
and  one  that  makes  a  rubbing  or  "wipe"  contact.  They  re- 
quire different  treatment.  The  correct  use  of  the  terms  con- 
tact maker,  contact  breaker  and  commutator  can  only  be 
learned  by  study  of  the  various  systems  of  ignition. 

As  regards  the  positive  make-and-break  system  of  con- 
tact maker,  where  there  is  no  friction  to  keep  the  platinum 
points  clean,  they  require  frequent  cleaning  to  get  rid  of 
the  oxidized  metal  and  carbonized  oil  caused  by  the  spark. 
Very  little  oil  on  the  points  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  pas- 
sage of  the  current,  so  that  the  points  must  be  occasionally 
wiped  or  washed  with  spirit  to  remove  the  burnt  oil.  The 
quality  of  the  spark  depends  largely  on  the  adjustment  of 
the  blade — that  is,  the  pressure  between  the  two  platinum 
contacts — and  the  sharpness  of  the  break. 

No  hard-and-fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  this  adjust- 
ment, as  much  depends  upon  the  engine,  coil,  current,  and 
the  contacts  of  the  maker.  Each  must  be  adjusted  to  the  en- 
gine to  which  it  is  fitted,  by  running  the  engine  and  then  ad- 
justing the  platinum-pointed  screw  till  the  best  results  are 
obtained.  It  is  generally  a  sign  that  there  is  wrong  adjust- 
ment if  the  car  moves  jerkily  when  the  ignition  lever  is  in  one 
position,  and  steadily  when  in  another.  To  put  it  right,  turn 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  67 

the  starting  handle  until  the  cam  brings  the  platinum  points 
into  contact.  The  binding  screw  having  been  slackened,  the 
platinum-tipped  screw  should  then  be  adjusted  until  the  plati- 
num point  rests  lightly  against  the  platinum  point  on  the 
trembler.  It  should  only  rest  lightly  on  it,  however,  and  not 
cause  an  appreciable  bend. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  this  adjustment  by  means  of  a 
turn-screw  while  the  engine  is  running.  The  mere  fraction 
of  a  turn  will  make  all  the  difference  between  correct  and 
incorrect  adjustment,  more  especially  as  regards  the  timing. 
(See  Timing.)  Also  an  adjustment  which  will  give  satis- 
factory running  at  low  speed  may  not  work  well  at  high 
speed.  Therefore  the  screw  should  be  turned  little  by  little 
while  the  ignition  is  advanced  and  retarded  alternately.  When 
the  best  position  is  attained  by  experiment  the  locking  screw 
or  nut  should  at  once  be  screwed  home,  thus  securing  the  plati- 
num-tipped screw  in  position.  The  operator  should  make 
sure  that  the  adjustment  is  the  same  in  the  case  of  all  the 
cylinders  or  the  relative  timing  may  be  upset. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  platinum  contact  on 
the  spring  blade  is  exactly  opposite  to  that  on  the  platinum- 
tipped  screw,  so  that  a  good  concentric  contact  is  made  be- 
tween them.  An  effective  method  of  checking  this  is  by 
greasing  the  two  platinum  points  and  pressing  a  white  card 
between  them  so  that  they  mark  it  on  each  side.  Run  a  pin 
through  one  mark,  and  if  it  is  in  the  center  of  the  other  the 
surfaces  are  concentric.  Clean  the  grease  off  after  checking 
position.  Dirt  on  platinum  points  will  cause  misfires.  By 
springing  the  trembler  outward  and  inserting  a  card  between 
the  points  and  then  pulling  it  out  again,  the  surfaces  can  be 
cleaned.  Sometimes  the  platinum  surface  becomes  pitted  by 
use.  Both  the  trembler  and  the  set  screw  should  be  taken 
off,  and  the  surfaces  filed  quite  flat  with  a  very  fine  file,  rubbed 
with  emery  cloth,  and  readjusted.  If  they  are  not  filed  flat, 
the  surfaces  will  not  come  together  truly,  and  bad  sparking 
and  faulty  timing  will  result.  The  best  method  is  to  place 
the  blade  in  a  small  hand  vise  parallel  to  the  jaws  in  such 


68  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

a  position  that  the  platinum  point  only  just  projects  above 
the  vise.  It  can  then  be  filed  absolutely  level  without  difficulty. 

At  all  times  when  an  adjustment  of  the  blade  or  the  plati- 
rium-tipped  screw  has  been  made,  be  careful  to  test  the  run- 
ning of  the  engine  with  every  position  of  the  rocker  of  the 
contact  maker,  taking  care,  of  course,  not  to  unduly  prolong 
the  test,  as  it  does  not  improve  the  engine  to  allow  it  to  race 
unrestrictedly. 

Oil  may  collect  both  under  the  spring  blade  where  it  is 
secured  to  the  metal,  and  between  the  platinum-pointed  screw 
and  the  block  which  supports  it,  preventing  a  free  passage 
of  the  current.  The  entire  ignition  apparatus  should  occa- 
sionally be  taken  asunder  and  well  washed  in  gasolene. 

Sometimes  the  platinum  on  the  trembler  becomes  loose, 
and  the  spark  occurs  intermittently ;  a  gentle  tap  with  a 
hammer,  so  as  to  rivet  it  up,  will  often  put  it  right.  If  the 
solder  at  the  back  of  the  blade  has  dropped  off,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  resolder  it.  Needless  to  say,  correct  timing  of 
the  spark  is  all-important.  This  subject  is  dealt  with  in 
the  chapter  on  Overhauling. 

The  Wipe  System  Contact  Maker. — In  this  system,  which 
is  in  very  wide  and  constantly  increasing  use,  it  is  most 
important  to  keep  the  insulated  disk  well  lubricated  with  a 
thin  oil  such  as  is  used  for  bicycle  bearings,  as  the  constant 
friction  forms  a  cake  on  the  brass  insertion  of  any  dust  that 
collects  there,  and  prevents  the  block  at  the  end  of  the  blades 
or  the  brushes  taking  up  the  current.  These  contact  makers 
give  little  trouble  if  lubricated  as  above  described  and  kept 
clean  from  dirt  and  thick  foul  oil.  The  pressure  of  the  con^ 
tact  pieces  on  the  disk  is  sufficient  to  prevent  any  road  vibra- 
tion from  "jumping"  them.  All  the  terminals  must  be  kept 
tight  and  clean. 

The  contact  blades  or  brushes  are  kept  to  their  work  by 
springs.  If  these  are  too  weak  contact  will  not  be  firm 
enough,  and  if  too  strong  the  wear  will  be  excessive.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  thing  to  find  the  metal  contact  pieces  which 
are  let  into  the  insulating  disk  badly  grooved  or  worn,  with 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  69 

the  result  that  the  brushes  jump  and  cause  intermittent 
sparking,  especially  at  high  engine  speed.  The  disk  should 
be  put  into  a  lathe,  and  a  very  slight  layer  skimmed  off  it, 
so  as  to  make  it  smooth  and  true. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  the  fiber  disk  of  the  contact 
maker  of  a  multi-cylinder  motor  becomes  impregnated  with 
minute  particles  of  metal  scrapings,  caused  by  the  friction  of 
the  contact  blades  with  the  brass  insertion  pieces  set  in  the 
disk.  This  will  set  up  irregular  firing,  and  it  may  become 
necessary  to  have  the  disk  skimmed  up  anew  in  the  lathe.  The 
use  of  a  magnifying  glass  will  readily  reveal  the  presence  of 
metal  particles. 

Another  source  of  trouble  where  a  fiber  disk  is  used,  and 
one  that  might  well  puzzle  the  novice,  occurs  frequently  in 
damp  weather,  and  is  due  to  the  property  possessed  by  red 
fiber  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  which  swells  it  until 
the  metal  contacts  are  no  longer  flush.  Thus  when  the  en- 
gine is  running  at  its  normal  speed  the  wiper  blades  either 
make  a  very  poor  contact  or  jump  the  contacts  altogether,  al- 
though when,  in  testing,  it  is  turned  slowly  with  the  starting 
handle,  the  coil  buzzes  all  right,  and  there  is  a  good  stream  of 
sparks  at  the  plug.  The  only  real  cure  is  to  have  the  contact 
trued  up  by  having  a  light  cut  taken  off  in  the  lathe,  as  already 
described,  but  when  on  the  road  something  may  be  done  by 
carefully  scraping  or  filing  the  fiber  for  some  distance  in  front 
of  each  contact  piece. 

It  is  essential  that  the  brushes  should  make  contact  with 
each  metal  segment  when  the  pistons  in  the  various  cylin- 
ders are  relatively  in  the  same  positions.  This  subject  is  fully 
dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  Overhauling. 

The  return  of  the  current  from  the  contact  maker  through 
ground  to  the  battery  is  sometimes  interfered  with  through  a 
loose  bearing  or  through  an  accumulation  of  dirt  or  oil.  It 
is  now  generally  provided  for  by  a  spring  plate  behind  the 
contact  maker  or  a  wiper  which  keeps  it  in  metallic  contact 
with  the  body  of  the  engine. 

In  the  roller  type  of  wipe  contact  maker,  another  popular 


70  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Contact  Maker,  the  disk  system  is  reversed.  The  fiber  ring, 
with  the  metal  sectors  (on  which  the  roller  makes  contact) 
let  into  it,  is  stationary,  while  the  roller  revolves  with  the 
camshaft,  and  is  kept  up  to  its  work  by  a  spring.  If  the 
spring  becomes  weak,  or  the  roller  pin  wears,  or  the  arm 
gets  askew,  misfiring  is  likely  to  result,  generally  accom- 
panied by  sparking  inside  the  contact  maker.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  other  type  of  wipe  contact  maker,  the  metal  and 
fiber  surface  of  the  ring  must  be  true.  The  whole  appliance 
should  be  kept  well  oiled,  be  frequently  cleaned,  and  worn 
particles  from  the  sectors  removed.  In  the  case  of  the  positive 
contact  type,  in  which  cams  (or  a  single  cam)  operate  flexi- 
ble blades  and  put  platinum  points  in  contact  with  each  other 
in  order  to  allow  the  current  to  flow  during  the  time  that  the 
coil  is  trembling,  the  appliance  is  often  so  arranged  that  the 
contact  surfaces  slide  across  each  other,  and  thus  tend  to  auto- 
matically clean  themselves  and  give  a  good  flat  contact  be- 
tween each  pair. 

(4.)  The  Contact  Breaker — We  have  adopted  this  term 
to  describe  the  method  employed  in  the  case  of  magneto  igni- 
tion to  effect  a  break  in  the  low  tension  circuit.  In  the  case 
of  high  tension  magnetos,  the  contrivance  is  much  the  same 
as  the  ordinary  positive  make-and-break  contact  maker,  except 
that  the  platinum  points  are  normally  touching  and  only 
momentarily  separated  by  the  cam.  The  contacts  must  be 
kept  clean  and  true,  as  in  the  ordinary  type,  and  should  make 
firm  contact  with  each  other. 

In  the  case  of  low  tension  magneto  ignition  the  contact 
breaker  is  the  appliance  which  causes  the  contact  arm  to 
separate  from  the  igniter  inside  the  combustion  chamber. 
Immediately  the  circuit  has  been  opened  it  is  closed  again 
by  the  action  of  a  spring  or  other  means. 

(5.)  The  Distributer — The  function  of  the  distributer  when 
used  in  connection  with  the  coil  and  battery  system  is 
to  synchronize  the  firing  of  the  different  cylinders  and  to 
obviate  the  necessity  of  having  a  separate  coil  for  each  cylin- 
der of  a  multi-cylinder  engine.  (See  Timing.)  In  some  high 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  71 

tension  magneto  machines  it  is  mounted  as  part  of  the  mag- 
neto machine,  and,  while  synchronizing  with  the  action  of 
the  contact  breaker,  distributes  the  high  tension  circuit  to  the 
various  cylinders.  The  possible  troubles  which  may  occur  are 
the  same  in  both  cases,  and  are  described  further  on  in  this 
article  under  "Magneto  Ignition." 

(6.)  The  Spark  Plug — To  examine  the  spark  plug,  first 
disconnect  the  wire,  unscrew  the  plug  from  the  combustion 
chamber,  reconnect  the  wire,  and  place  the  plug  on  the  metal 
portion  of  the  frame,  or  on  the  top  of  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, taking  care  that  only  the  metal  portion  of  the  body  of  the 
plug  is  in  contact.  The  cap  or  screw  should  not  be  in  contact. 
Then  turn  the  starting  handle,  as  described  in  testing  the 
wires.  If  no  spark  or  a  weak  spark  passes,  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  the  plug  is  at  fault,  and  it  should  be  examined 
in  detail. 

If  the  points  of  a  spark  plug  are  placed  about  one  millimeter 
(or  i-25th  of  an  inch)  apart,  and  there  is  a  good  voltage  from 
the  battery  on  making  contact,  so  as  to  set  up  an  induced  cur- 
rent, a  "fat"  spark  usually  results.  It  has  the  appearance  of 
a  halo  or  zone  of  radiance  bushing  out  on  each  side  of  a 
line  drawn  between  the  points  of  the  spark  plug.  Now,  separ- 
ate the  platinum  points  another  millimeter,  and  the  spark  will 
be  seen  to  be  a  thin,  thready  one,  and  without  any  of  the  sur- 
rounding iridescence. 

A  thin  spark  may  be  caused  by  want  of  power  in  the  in- 
duced current  of  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil.  The 
causes  of  this  may  be  faulty  design  of  the  coil,  imperfect  regu- 
lation of  the  trembler  contacts  of  the  contact  maker,  or  insuf- 
ficient current  from  the  battery.  It  should  be  understood  that 
unless  the  source  of  the  current,  namely,  the  battery,  is  in 
a  condition  to  give  a  good  current,  the  spark  will  be  thin. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spark  is  larger  under  or- 
dinary atmospheric  pressure  than  it  is  in  the  cylinder,  owing 
to  the  compression  in  the  latter.  The  increased  pressure  and 
temperature  affect  its  intensity,  and  allowance  must  be  made 
for  this.  The  points  of  the  spark  plug  for  magneto  ignition 


72  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

should  be  placed  slightly  closer  together  than  in  the  case  of 
high  tension  coil  and  battery  ignition. 

In  testing  the  spark  plugs  of  a  two  or  more  cylindered 
engine  a  more  accurate  determination  of  the  power  of  the 
spark  may  be  arrived  at  as  follows :  Take  the  wires  off  all 
plugs  but  one  and  ground  by  leaving  them  in  contact  with 
the  engine  and  then  turn  the  engine.  Repeat  this  till  the  plug 
which  will  not  run  the  engine  on  one  cylinder  is  discovered. 
It  is  best  first  to  loosen  all  the  wires  and  start  the  engine  up 
and  then  leave  only  one  in  circuit  in  turn.  This  can  be  readily 
done  where  chopper  switches  are  used;  though  these  are  gen- 
erally only  fitted  in  the  case  of  low  tension  magneto  igniter 
plugs.  (It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that,  where  the  test 
is  made,  the  wire  should  be  grounded,  otherwise  the  coil  or 
coils  may  be  permanently  injured.) 

The  usual  defects  which  appear  in  working,  and  which 
will  cause  bad  sparking  are:  Broken  core,  resulting  in  the 
spark  penetrating  the  crack  where  the  insulation  is  weak, 
and  making  a  short  circuit  with  the  metal  cover,  instead  of 
passing  at  the  points.  The  crack  is  in  some  cases  so  small 
that  the  porcelain  or  mica  core  feels  tight  to  the  hand  in  its 
case,  and  it  is  only  when  the  spark  has  to  pass  under  com- 
pression that  it  will  choose  the  shorter  and  easier  way.  Or 
the  crack  may  require  the  road  vibration  to  open  it  sufficiently 
to  allow  the  spark  to  pass,  which  often  results  in  intermittent 
sparking.  The  heat  of  the  engine  also  will  cause  expansion, 
and  the  crack  may  consequently  increase  while  in  use  and 
diminish  when  cold.  A  broken  or  cracked  porcelain  can  some- 
times be  detected  by  holding  the  plug  to  the  ear  and  giving  the 
porcelain  a  twist.  If  a  grating  noise  results  it  is  a  sure  indi- 
cation. A  black  deposit  about  the  plug  is  also  an  index.  If 
a  nut  or  set  screw  securing  the  washer  on  the  plug  is  over- 
tightened  it  may  crack  the  porcelain. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  loss  of  compression  at  the  packing 
gland,  and  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  tighten  up  the  hexa- 
gonal top  of  the  circular  portion  of  the  gland.  This  may 
possibly  affect  the  adjustment  of  the  sparking  points,  which 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  73 

should  consequently  be  examined  after  the  operation.  Some- 
times the  thread  of  a  plug  is  slightly  burred  in  the  fitting  of 
the  gap  wire,  and  when  screwed  home  the  position  of  the 
wires  may  be  altered.  After  screwing  home,  therefore,  the 
plug  should  be  unscrewed  again  and  examined  before  being 
replaced. 

Defective  sparking  at  the  plug  will  follow  the  accumulation 
of  oil  or  water  on  the  base  of  the  porcelain  or  between  the 
points ;  the  latter  is  not  so  common  as  the  former,  but  if  it 
does  occur  it  forms,  being  a  good  conductor,  a  continuous  cir- 
cuit for  the  electricity,  and  there  being  no  gap,  no  spark  will 
pass.  On  the  other  hand,  oil  is  a  very  good  insulator,  and  if 
there  is  oil  on  or  between  the  points  of  the  plug,  there  is  con- 
siderable resistance  to  the  spark  passing.  When  the  engine  is 
at  work,  however,  the  oil  is  burnt,  leaving  a  carbon  deposit 
on  the  plug,  and  as  carbon  is,  like  water,  a  fairly  good  con- 
ductor, the  electricity  will  travel  along  the  surface  of  the  plug 
instead  of  jumping  the  gap.  In  heavy  rain,  water  may  collect 
on  the  top  of  the  bonnet  and  drop  through  on  to  the  porcelain 
of  the  sparking  plug,  so  that  a  big  drop  forms  on  its  side  and 
cause  a  "short" ;  or  a  blob  of  mud  may  be  deposited  thereon. 

As  the  battery  runs  down  the  current  will  grow  weaker, 
and  therefore  the  points  of  the  plug  may  need  adjusting  closer 
to  each  other  to  suit  the  altered  conditions,  but  it  is  better  to 
change  or  recharge  the  battery. 

When  every  adjustment  has  been  made  to  the  plug,  and  the 
engine  is  still  obdurate,  a  new  one  should  be  fitted,  and  if 
this  does  not  mend  matters  the  motorist  may  reasonably  con- 
clude that  the  battery  has  run  down  or  that  the  coil  is  at 
fault. 

(7.)  The  Coil— -Coil  troubles  are  difficult  to  diagnose.  A 
"short"  is  generally  indicated  by  a  ticking  or  buzz  inside 
the  coil  or  by  an  excessive  discharge  of  current  causing  rapid 
pitting  of  the  contact  points.  The  "short"  may  be  due  to  a 
weak  spot  in  the  insulation,  which  may  not  manifest  itself 
until  the  coil  has  been  in  use  for  some  time.  In  case  there 
should  be  such  a  weak  spot  in  the  insulation,  great  care  should 


74 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


be  taken  in  testing  the  wires  not  to  hold  the  end  of  the  high 
tension  wire  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  metal 
of  the  engine,  for  if  this  is  done,  the  resistance  to  the  current 
passing  may  prove  so  great  as  to  break  down  the  weak  spot 
in  the  insulation. 

Fig.  i  shows  the  ordinary  form  of  trembler.  A  is  the  spring 
blade,  and  B  is  a  weaker  spring  making  contact  with  the  screw 
C.  E  is  the  core  of  the  coil,  which,  when  magnetized  by  the 
passing  of  the  primary  current,  attracts  A  and  breaks  con- 
tact with  C.  The  core  then  becomes  demagnetized,  and  the 
blade  A  springs  back  and  B  again  comes  into  contact.  The 
same  process  is  repeated  continually  and  rapidly  during  the 
time  contact  is  made,  resulting  in  a  rapid  vibration  of  the 
trembler  and  a  great  number  of  makes  and  breaks. 


It  is  essential  that  the  contact  points  between  the  trembler 
blade  B  and  the  platinum-pointed  screw  C  should  be  properly 
adjusted  (see  Fig.  i).  If  the  contact  is  too  firm  the  Spring 
cannot  tremble,  and  only  a  weak  spark  results,  whereas  if  no 
contact  is  made  the  current  will  not  pass.  The  platinum- 
pointed  screw  should  be  adjusted  with  the  engine  running 
until  the  trembler  gives  a  full  and  regular  buzz.  In  a  multi- 
cylindered  engine  it  is  essential  that  the  note  should  be  the 
same  in  every  cylinder,  or  the  timing  in  the  different  cylin- 
ders will  vary  and  the  engine  will  not  give  its  full  power.  The 
platinum-pointed  screw  C  having  been  adjusted,  it  is  locked  by 
the  milled  nut  D. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  75 

Fig.  2  shows  the  trembler  mechanism  to  be  found  in  the 
well-known  "Castle"  coils.  The  adjustment  of  this  is  some- 
what different.  Instead  of  judging  by  the  buzz,  it  is  best  to 
adjust  this  trembler  as  follows :  The  contact  screw  C  should 
be  screwed  down  until  it  makes  contact  with  the  spring  blade 
B  (the  upper  of  the  two  blades  in  the  diagram),  and  just 
breaks  contact  at  its  end  with  the  under  side  of  the  button  F 
(this  is  attached  to  the  under  or  armature  blade  A).  When 
the  armature  blade  A  is  pressed  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
button  G,  the  clearance  between  the  two  contacts  at  H  should 
be  approximately  half  that  between  the  bottom  face  K  and 
the  under  top  face  J  of  the  button  G.  This  method  of  adjust- 
ment is  that  followed  by  one  of  the  most  experienced  of  Euro- 
pean motor  engineers. 

Sometimes,  with  tremblers  of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  I,  the 
engine  will  not  start  until  the  trembler  is  vibrated  by  hand. 
This  is  due  to  the  armature  blade  A  being  too  far  from  the  end 
of  the  core  E — the  magnetic  pull  being  insufficient  to  attract 
A  and  so  break  contact  between  B  and  C.  In  that  case  the 
blade  A  should  be  very  slightly  bent  down  nearer  the  end 
of  the  core  E,  and  the  contact  readjusted.  This  symptom, 
however — the  trembler  not  having  been  previously  interfered 
with — often  points  to  a  weak  dry  battery  or  a  run  down  stor- 
age battery,  which  should  be  tested. 

If  misfiring  should  occur,  the  operator  should  turn  the 
starting  handle  slowly,  and  note  if  there  is  a  full  buzz  each 
time  the  segment  in  the  contact  maker  disk  comes  under  one 
of  the  brushes.  If  in  any  case  there  is  no  buzz,  the  wiring 
and  terminals  should  be  examined.  If  they  are  in  order,  the 
trouble  must  be  in  the  engine,  and  the  next  course  is  to  find 
the  faulty  cylinder.  This  can  be  done  by  cutting  out  all  the 
cylinders  in  turn  with  the  engine  running,  either  by  lifting  the 
chopper  switches,  or  by  pressing  down  all  but  one  of  the 
trember  blades  of  the  coil  at  the  same  time.  The  plug  of  the 
weak  cylinder  should  then  be  tested,  and  if  there  is  anything 
wrong,  a  new  plug  should  be  fitted.  Excessive  sparking  at 
the  contacts  may  be  due  to  defective  adjustment,  to  inferior 


;6  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

alloys  in  the  contacts,  or  to  failure  in  the  condenser.  If,  after 
remedying  the  adjustment,  there  is  no  improvement,  the  con- 
tacts should  be  renewed  with  pure  platinum.  If  excessive 
sparking  still  takes  place,  the  best  plan  is  to  run  the  engine 
on  a  new  coil.  If  the  sparking  then  is  not  apparent,  the  owner 
may  take  it  for  granted  that  there  is  something  wrong  inter- 
nally with  the  old  coil,  and  should  send  it  to  the  makers. 

In  testing  a  coil  it  is  very  necessary  to  see  that  when  con- 
tact is  complete  in  the  low  tension  circuit,  there  is  a  metallic 
circuit  for  the  high  tension.  This  will  be  complete  in  th( 
ordinary  course  with  the  exception  of  the  gap  across  the  spark 
plug  points,  which  is  not  great,  and  which  will  allow  the  cur- 
rent to  jump  across  when  contact  is  broken  at  the  contact 
breaker.  If,  therefore,  in  testing  one  or  more  coils  on  a  multi- 
cylindered  engine,  the  wires  leading  from  the  high  tension 
winding  of  the  coil  are  not  connected  closely  to  ground  (by 
leaving  the  ends  within  one-eighth  inch  of  the  metal  of  the  en- 
gine) a  very  high  initial  voltage  Avill  be  induced  in  the  coil 
which  may  break  through  the  insulation  and  so  may  irrepar- 
ably damage  the  coil.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  see  that 
each  wire  from  each  coil  is  either  permanently  grounded,  or 
is  held  in  close  proximity  to  some  metallic  part  of  the  engine 
or  framework  of  the  car.  If  the  ends  of  the  wires  are  held  not 
more  than  one-eighth  inch  from  some  such  metallic  part,  the 
spark  across  will  indicate  that  the  coil  is  working  correctly. 
If  the  space  is  larger,  the  voltage  set  up  in  the  coil  will  be 
such  as  to  cause  it  readily  to  break  through  the  insulation. 
Such  a  breaking  of  the  current  through  the  insulation  of  the 
high  tension  wiring  in  the  coil  produces  a  "short,"  and  this 
may  be  detected  often  by  a  faint  buzzing  sound  inside  the  coil 
as  distinct  from  the  trembler  buzz.  Damage  to  the  primary 
winding  of  the  coil  may  be  readily  detected  by  measuring  the 
voltage  of  the  current  by  means  of  a  voltmeter  placed  in  a 
circuit  with  the  two  terminals  of  the  storage  battery,  and  com- 
paring it  with  the  voltage  registered  when  the  voltmeter  is 
placed  in  circuit  with  one  terminal  of  the  battery  and  one 
terminal  of  the  coil,  so  that  the  current  has  to  pass  through 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  77 

the  coil  before  going  through  the  voltmeter.  Any  internal 
defect  in  an  induction  coil  is  best  remedied  by  the  makers,  as 
the  ascertaining  of  the  point  at  which  the  current  is  shorting 
or  leaking  is  a  very  delicate  matter.  On  some  coils  there  may 
be  as  much  as  quarter  of  a  mile  or  more  of  high  tension  wir- 
ing, in  any  part  of  which  a  leak  may  take  place  or  a  short 
occur. 

Moisture  or  dirt  on  the  coil  terminals  will  cause  short  cir- 
cuits, while  extreme  heat  will  permanently  injure  the  coil. 

If,  when  contact  is  made,  the  core  attracts  the  armature, 
but  refuses  to  release  it  when  the  current  is  stopped,  the  fault 
will  lie  in  the  coil  core  being  to  a  certain  extent  permanently 
magnetized.  The  remedy  for  this  is  a  new  core  of  very  soft 
iron,  and  it  can  only  be  fitted  by  an  experienced  coil  maker. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  effect  of  this  can  be  got  over  by  in- 
terposing betweerr  the  blade  and  the  end  of  the  core,  a  thin 
strip  of  paper  gummed  on  to  the  core.  In  cases  where  the 
blade  has  a  soft  iron  armature  attached  to  it  which  comes 
opposite  the  end  of  the  core,  this  may  become  magnetized.  If 
so,  the  interposed  paper  may  remedy  it.  If  not,  the  armature 
should  be  taken  off  the  spring  blade  and  annealed  by  heating 
it  to  a  dull  red  heat  in  a  fire  and  allowing  it  to  cool  very 
slowly  in  the  ashes. 

The  surfaces  of  the  two  points — one  on  the  blade  and  the 
other  on  the  contact  screw — should  be  kept  quite  flat  and 
quite  square;  that  is  to  say,  when  they  come  in  contact  with 
each  other,  the  whole  of  their  surfaces  should  come  into  con- 
tact, and  not  only  one  part.  It  is  well-known  that  if  a  current 
passes  across  a  gap,  one  side  of  the  gap  will  have  on  it  a  piled- 
up  accumulation  of  very  fine  particles  of  the  metal  taken  from 
the  other  side  of  the  gap.  Thus  one  point  will  become  convex 
and  the  other  concave.  The  result  is  that  a  firm  and  even 
contact  is  not  made,  and  misfiring  may  result. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  by  revers- 
ing the  direction  of  the  current  occasionally,  the  reverse  ten- 
dency will  take  place,  and  that  point  of  the  trembler  which 
was  giving  metal  to  the  other  point  will  be  taking  metal  back. 


7§  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

By  occasionally  altering  the  wires  from  the  battery,  so 
that  the  wire  running  to  ground  is  sometimes  a  positive  wire 
and  sometimes  a  negative  wire,  this  pitting  of  the  points  of 
the  trembler  will,  to  a  very  large  extent,  remedy  itself.  In 
the  case  where  two  batteries  are  used  with  a  switch  which  can 
put  either  one  or  the  other  in  operation,  it  is  advisable  to  wire 
one  up  with  the  negative  terminal  connected  to  ground,  and 
the  other  with  the  positive  terminal  connected  to  ground.  If 
the  user  changes  the  switch  over  each  day,  so  that  on  one  day 
one  battery  is  being  used  and  on  the  other  day  the  other,  a 
reversal  of  the  direction  of  current  will  be  obtained,  which 
will  cause  the  accumulation  of  metal  on  one  terminal  to  be 
sent  back  to  the  other  terminal.  This  will  keep  the  trembler 
in  much  better  order,  and  prevent  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary 
riling  of  the  platinum  points,  which,  of  course,  means  loss  of 
a  very  valuable  metal. 

In  cases  where  the  platinum  point  has  to  be  filed  in  order 
to  get  a  level  bearing  on  the  platinum  point  on  the  blade,  an 
easy  way  to  get  the  point  square  and  flat  is  to  screw  back  the 
platinum  point  in  the  bridge  piece  which  holds  it  until  it  just 
protrudes  below  the  under  surface,  and  then  to  use  the  file  un- 
der this,  the  bridge  piece  acting  as  a  guide  to  the  file.  The 
screw  may,  meanwhile,  be  slightly  turned. 

In  cases  where  it  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  tip  of  the  screw 
in  this  way,  the  screw  may  be  taken  right  out,  and  a  lock 
nut  which  is  generally  provided  to  lock  this  screw  in  position 
may  be  run  on  to  it,  and  this  may  be  used  as  a  guide,  so  that 
the  end  of  the  screw  may  be  filed  up  quite  square. 

The  filing  of  the  platinum  tip  on  the  blade  is  an  easy  mat- 
ter. The  blade  should  be  laid  down  flat  on  a  planed  piece  of 
wood,  and  then  filed  across.  Filing  the  platinum  contact  on 
the  blade  while  it  is  in  position  may  have  the  effect  of  altering 
the  position  of  the  blade,  in  which  case  the  adjustment  of  the 
whole  trembler  would  have  to  be  gone  over  again.  For  a 
quick  cleaning  up  of  the  contact  points  between  the  trembler 
and  blade  a  good  plan  is  to  double  a  piece  of  emery  cloth  of 
fairly  fine  grade,  so  that  the  emery  is  on  the  outside  of  both 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  79 

sides  of  the  cloth,  and  then  to  push  this  between  the  blade 
and  screw  backward  and  forward,  keeping  a  certain  amount 
of  pressure  on  the  blades,  so  that  both  platinum  surfaces  of 
screw  and  blade  are  kept  in  close  contact  with  the  emery.  It 
is  necessary  afterwards  to  clean  off  all  the  particles  of  emery 
set  adrift  in  the  course  of  this  operation. 

Pitting  of  the  platinum  contacts  in  a  trembler  or  in  the 
contact  maker  of  a  magneto,  or  in  the  contact  breaker  on  an 
engine  using  a  high  tension  battery  system  of  ignition,  causes 
rapid  deterioration  of  the  surfaces  and  inefficient  contact, 
sometimes  resulting  in  misfiring  and  a  weak  spark.  The  rea- 
son of  this  pitting  is  simply  an  excessive  spark  between  the 
contact  points.  It  is  to  prevent  excessive  sparking  at  this 
point  that  the  condenser  is  used.  The  condenser  of  an  electric 
coil,  consists  of  a  number  of  superimposed  layers  of  tinfoil 
separated  from  each  other  by  thin  sheets  of  mica  or  paraffined 
paper. 

The  condenser  is  connected  in  a  shunt  between  each  side 
of  the  trembler.  It  may  happen  that  a  condenser  becomes 
grounded,  that  is  to  say,  the  wire  leading  from  one  side  of 
the  trembler  to  the  condenser  is  in  metallic  contact  with  some 
part  of  the  frame  or  some  other  wiring  which  will  lead  it  to 
the  frame.  In  this  case,  of  course,  there  will  be  no  spark  at 
the  plug,  because  the  current  will  find  its  way  through  the 
wire  leading  to  the  condenser  and  so  to  ground.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  that  the  wire  which  leads  from  one  side  of  the 
trembler  to  the  condenser,  or  the  wire  from  the  condenser 
to  ground,  may  not  be  making  proper  contact.  In  either  case, 
of  course,  no  current  will  be  sent  in  to  the  condenser — the 
result  being  excessive  sparking  across  the  trembler  points  and 
consequent  pitting. 

The  function  of  the  condenser  being  to  prevent  excessive 
sparking  at  the  contact  points  of  the  trembler,  it  is  necessary 
to  see  that  the  condenser  connections  are  properly  made,  but, 
in  making  any  investigation  as  regards  this,  very  great  care 
should  be  taken,  as  only  very  light  wires  are  led  to  the  con- 
denser, and  it  In  itself  is  a  most  delicate  arrangement  and 


8o  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

very  easy  to  upset.  It  is  generally  best  to  allow  the  coil  mak- 
ers— or  the  magneto  makers  as  the  case  may  be — to  correct 
any  derangement  which  may  be  found  in  condensers. 

(8.)  The  Dry  Battery  or  the  Accumulator  (Storage  Bat- 
tery).— Internal  short  circuits  are  not  likely  to  occur  in  the 
case  of  dry  batteries,  the  only  trouble  in  this  respect  being 
through  the  running  down  of  the  battery.  This  is  a  form  of 
trouble  not  hard  to  avoid.  As  regards  storage  batteries  so- 
called,  or  accumulators,  however,  a  short  circuit  can  easily  be 
made.  It  is  generally  due  to  the  buckling  of  the  plates,  so 
that  a  positive  plate  comes  in  contact  with  a  negative  plate. 
This  will  practically  "short"  the  whole  of  the  battery,  with 
the  result  that  it  will  be  rapidly  discharged  through  its  own 
plates.  Buckling  of  the  plates  is  due  in  most  cases  to  either 
too  rapid  charging  or  too  rapid  discharging.  Thus,  if  we 
connect  the  positive  and  negative  terminals  of  a  fully  charged 
battery  together,  the  discharge  \vill  be  so  rapid  that  it  is  al- 
most certain  that  the  plates  will  be  buckled  and  touch  each 
other.  In  testing  a  battery  to  see  whether  current  is  flowing 
or  not,  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  use  a  voltmeter,  so  that 
the  current  has  to  flow  through  a  resistance.  Another  source 
of  short  circuiting  in  a  storage  battery  is  the  oxidizing  of  the 
brass  terminals,  and  the  spraying  over  of  the  acid  through 
the  vent  holes.  The  acid  in  this  case  may  often  form  a  path 
for  the  current  from  one  terminal  to  the  other,  which  results 
in  the  cell  becoming  discharged.  The  best  method  of  prevent- 
ing this  is  to  smear  the  terminals  with  petroleum  jelly,  having 
first  thoroughly  cleaned  them  and  treated  them  with  a  solu- 
tion of  ammonia  and  water.  Up-to-date  batteries  are  now 
fitted  with  glass  bulbs  which  allow  the  gases  to  escape,  but  at 
the  same  time  deflect  the  acid  sprayed,  with  the  result  that 
the  acid  falls  down  again  into  the  battery.  For  the  treatment 
of  batteries  which  have  lost  acid  through  excessive  spraying 
there  are  well-known  methods. 

In  a  great  number  of  batteries,  principally  used  for  motor 
cycles,  the  electrolyte  instead  of  being  in  the  form  of  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  and  waterx  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  81 

jelly  or  paste  which  will  not  spill  out  of  the  battery  should  it 
be  turned  on  its  side  or  at  an  acute  angle.  Generally  speak- 
ing, a  solution  of  water  and  sulphuric  acid  is  the  best  for 
motor  car  purposes.  To  prevent  the  corrosion  of  the  term- 
inals of  a  battery  and  a  consequent  shorting  of  the  current, 
rubber  sleeves  are  now  made  which  can  be  pushed  back  over 
the  wires,  and  then  when  the  wires  have  been  connected  to 
the  terminals  the  rubber  sleeve  can  be  pushed  over  both  wire 
and  terminal,  the  rubber  effectually  preserving  both  from  the 
effects  of  the  acid.  It  is  well  to  see  that  a  terminal  is  screwed 
so  that  the  wire  cannot  be  moved  freely  round  it,  that  is  to 
say,  that  it  is  gripping  the  wire  tightly.  Sometimes  a  terminal 
will  screw  down  and  apparently  be  tight  without  gripping  the 
wire.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  countersink  the  underside  of 
the  screwed  bore  of  the  terminal  nut.  In  some  cases  a  "short" 
in  a  battery  is  due  to  the  paste  falling  down  between  the  neg- 
ative and  the  positive  plate  and  so  forming  a  short  circuit. 
This  can  only  be  remedied  by  taking  off  the  top  of  the  battery 
and  replacing  the  paste  in  the  plate,  a  job  which  often  means 
the  complete  pasting  of  all  the  plates,  and  one  which  can  only 
be  properly  carried  out  by  an  expert  battery  maker  or  re- 
pairer. 

A  storage  battery  should  always  be  kept  in  a  place  where 
it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  any  metal  tools  or  acces- 
sories, otherwise  a  short  circuit  can  easily  be  made  by  the 
tools  moving  about,  and  coming  in  contact  with  both  term- 
inals of  the  battery. 

As  regards  a  dry  battery,  once  it  is  run  down  to  five  volts 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  it  is  useless  for  ignition  pur- 
poses and  should  be  replaced.  This,  of  course,  is  in  the  case 
of  a  four-cell  dry  battery — each  cell  should  represent  1.5 
when  new.  It  must  be  remembered  that  owing  to  the  fact 
that  a  dry  battery  generates  its  own  current  by  chemical  ac- 
tion, its  voltage  will  fall  gradually,  while  in  the  case  of  a 
storage  battery,  the  voltage  will  fall  very  suddenly  indeed. 
Very  few  firms,  However,  now  fit  dry  batteries.  In  most 
cases  storage  batteries  are  used. 


82  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Troubles  with  batteries  will  be  found  to  be  due  principally 
to  insufficient  charging.  They  are  sometimes  left  for  long 
periods  without  charging  and  allowed  to  run  down  to  nearly 
the  discharged  rate,  but  this  is  detrimental.  A  battery  should 
never  be  allowed  to  become  fully  discharged,  and  its  voltage 
should  be  kept  as  nearly  constant  as  possible.  It  should  not 
be  run  for  long  intervals  without  charging,  and,  in  fact,  the 
capacity  and  utility  of  a  battery  can  be  greatly  increased  if 
charged  frequently  and  not  allowed  to  run  down  too  low. 
Too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  on  the  reading  of  a 
voltmeter  when  attached  to  a  battery.  A  voltmeter  may  easily 
show  over  4  volts  when  attached  to  the  terminals  of  a  battery, 
but  when  this  battery  comes  into  use  its  voltage  may  drop 
suddenly  below  4  volts;  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  practically 
discharged. 

When  a  storage  battery  is  nearly  run  out,  and  then  sudden- 
ly put  into  circuit,  it  may  show  a  greater  voltage  than  it  act- 
ually possesses,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best  to  use  a  small 
glow  lamp  and  to  put  this  in  circuit  with  the  battery.  If  the 
glow  lamp  glows  brightly  for  several  minutes,  it  may  be  taken 
for  granted  that  the  battery  is  above  4  volts.  If,  however,  it 
glows  very  dimly  and  gradually  decreases  in  brilliancy,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  battery  is  almost  run  down.  Practically 
all  batteries  used  for  electric  ignition  purposes  on  motor 
vehicles  consist  of  two  cells,  each  giving  out  just  over  2  volts. 
When  coupled  in  series,  the  sum  of  the  voltage  should  amount 
to  4.5  volts,  but  it  drops  at  once  when  put  into  use.  If  in- 
ternal leakage  is  taking  place  between  two  cells  this  voltage 
will  be  lowered.  It  is,  therefore,  useful  to  check  the  voltage 
of  each  of  the  two  cells  in  a  battery  by  connecting  the  neg- 
ative or  positive  terminal,  as  the  case  may  be,  with  the  cross 
bar  which  joins  the  two  cells — thus  putting  one  cell  out  of 
circuit.  If  a  reading  is  taken  when  the  voltmeter  is  connected 
to  the  cross  bar  and  the  negative  terminal,  and  another  read- 
ing is  taken  when  the  voltmeter  is  connected  to  the  cross  bar 
and  the  positive  terminal,  the  sum  of  the  voltage  will  be  the 
voltage  given  off  by  the  two  cells — that  is,  the  complete  bat- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  83 

tery.  If  the  two  readings  differ,  internal  resistance  has  been 
set  up,  probably  due  to  a  faulty  connection  on  the  bridge  piece 
which  connects  the  negative  pole  of  one  cell  with  the  positive 
pole  of  the  other.  This  can  generally  be  ascertained  by  at- 
tempting to  move  the  bridge  piece  relatively  to  the  cell,  and 
if  it  is  not  quite  rigid,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  good 
metallic  connection  is  not  being  made. 

Each  fully  charged  cell  should  give  off  a  voltage  of  2.2, 
and  the  resultant  voltage  should  be  at  least  4.4.  In  charging, 
the  golden  rule  is — charge  slowly,  uniformly,  and  at  frequent 
intervals.  Fast  charging  leads  to  buckling  and  short  circuit- 
ing of  the  plates.  Slow  charging  at  frequent  intervals,  before 
the  voltage  has  dropped  too  low,  improves  a  battery.  It  is, 
therefore,  advisable  to  keep  two  batteries,  and  alternate  them 
frequently,  charging  up  the  one  not  in  use,  while  the  one  in 
use  is  being  drawn  upon. 

As  regards  the  running  out  of  either  a  dry  battery  or  an  ac- 
cumulator, in  case  a  fully-charged  spare  one  is  not  carried, 
and  sufficient  voltage  cannot  be  obtained  to  run  the  engine, 
it  is  often  possible  to  run  on  two  run-out  accumulators  each 
of  4  volt  capacity  if  they  are  coupled  up  in  series;  that  is  to 
say,  the  switch  should  be  disconnected  and  the  wires  from 
each  pole  of  the  switch  should  be  connected  together  so  as  to 
give  a  complete  circuit.  The  ground  wire  should  be  connected 
to  the  negative  terminal  of  one  accumulator ;  the  positive 
terminal  of  this  accumulator  should  be  connected  to  the  neg- 
ative terminal  of  the  other,  and  the  positive  terminal  of  the 
second  accumulator  should  be  connected  direct  to  the  electric 
ignition  mechanism.  In  this  way,  an  increased  voltage  can 
be  obtained,  and  although  the  batteries  may  each  show  less 
than  4  volts,  the  combined  voltage  will  be  sufficient  to  induce 
— temporarily,  and  only  temporarily —  sufficient  high  tension 
current  in  the  secondary  winding  of  the  coil.  It  must  be  dis- 
tinctly understood,  however,  that  this  connection  should  only 
be  made  when  the  batteries  are  partially  run  down.  If  the 
Connection  is  made  when  the  batteries  are  fully  charged,  as 
much  as  9  volts  will  be  sent  through  the  <  oil.  The  result  will 


84  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

be  such  an  enormously  high  voltage  in  the  secondary  winding 
of  the  coil  that  it  may  become  permanently  damaged  through 
not  having  sufficient  insulation  to  carry  the  voltage  set  up. 

In  the  case  of  dry  batteries,  if  there  are  two,  the  same  pro- 
cedure may  be  followed,  coupling  up  the  two  batteries  in  ser- 
ies after  they  have  fallen  below  4  volts  or  each  set  of  four 
cells.  When  accumulators  are  nearly  run  down,  their  voltage 
cannot  be  increased  except  by  coupling  up  in  series  in  the  way 
we  have  pointed  out.  In  the  case  of  dry  batteries,  however, 
they  may  be  to  a  certain  extent  re-energized  by  making  a  hole 
in  the  pitch  with  which  they  are  sealed  and  pouring  in  a  solu- 
tion of  warm  water  and  sal-ammoniac — only  such  a  quantity 
of  sal-ammoniac  being  dissolved  in  the  water  as  will  leave  the 
water  clear.  By  leaving  the  sal-ammoniac  in  the  warm  water 
for  about  an  hour  and  then  draining  off  the  water,  all  the  sal- 
ammoniac  which  the  water  will  hold  in  solution  will  have 
been  absorbed,  and  the  solution  will  then  be  as  strong  as 
possible.  In  order  to  rapidly  get  the  solution  of  sal-ammoniac 
into  the  cell,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the  hole  through  the  pitch 
sealing  large  enough  to  admit  a  small  quill ;  the  solution  can 
then  be  poured  in,  and  the  quill  will  allow  the  air  the  neces- 
sary exit.  A  quill  from  any  chicken,  cut  so  that  it  is  open  at 
each  end  and  the  finer  the  better,  will  be  suitable.  It  should 
protrude  about  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  below  the  bottom 
layer  of  pitch.  After  the  new  solution  has  been  poured  in,  the 
cells  should  be  sealed  up.  This  could  be  done  in  case  of  em- 
ergency by  a  hot  iron,  which  wall  melt  the  pitch  and  cause  it 
to  flow  again  and  close  the  hole  made  for  the  introduction  of 
the  solution.  The  cell  will  then  revive,  and  its  full  voltage 
may  be  availed  of,  but  it  will  only  be  useful  for  a  short  per- 
iod of  time,  and  will  very  rapidly  run  down,  when  it  will  be- 
come useless.  It  is  always  advisable  to  have  a  spare  battery 
ready  at  hand. 

In  cases  where  leaks  take  place  in  accumulators  due  to  the 
breaking  away  of  the  celluloid  cases,  these  can  be  repaired 
by  taking  out  the  acid  and  using  celluloid  sheet  and  cellu- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  85 

loid  repairing  solution  which  can  be  obtained  from  most  of 
the  makers  of  such  batteries. 

MAGNETO-IGNITION  TROUBLES. 

So  far  we  have  dealt  with  repairs  and  adjustments  to  high 
tension  ignition  where  a  storage  or  dry  battery  is  used  to  pro- 
vide the  low  tension  current.  In  the  case  of  magneto  igni- 
tion, and  considering  high  tension  magneto  first,  we  may  take 
ft  that  those  troubles  which  occur  in  distributers,  contact  mak- 
ers, and  contact  breakers,  will  be  practically  the  same  in  the 
case  of  this  type  of  ignition,  and  therefore  we  may  refer,  for 
troubles  as  regards  these  units,  to  our  previous  notes  on  high 
tension  ignition.  In  the  case  of  low  tension  magneto  ignition, 
the  troubles  will  generally  be  found  to  be  purely  of  a  mechan- 
ical kind,  and  will  be  dealt  with  as  we  come  to  them. 

Before  reading  this  section,  the  reader  is  advised  to  carefully 
study  the  question  of  magneto  ignition  as  it  appears  under  the 
general  heading  of  Ignition,  which  deals  with  both  high  and 
low  tension  magneto  ignition. 

(a)  The  Low  Tension  Magneto  System. — This  is  the  most 
simple  of  all  types  of  magneto  ignition,  seldom  requiring  any 
repairs  or  adjustments  to  the  magneto  itself,  this  instrument 
simply  consisting  of  a  rotating  armature  with  a  coil  round  it 
and  some  form  of  wiper  to  carry  off  the  current.  The  prin- 
cipal faults  and  troubles  which  arise  in  this  type  of  magneto 
ignition  will  be  due  to  the  mechanical  make-and-break  mech- 
anism of  the  timing  gear,  to  which  we  will  refer  later.  There 
is  one  point,  however,  which  it  is  necessary  to  emphasize ; 
the  armature  bearings  should  be  kept  lubricated,  but  excessive 
lubrication  should  be  avoided,  as  this  soaks  into  the  insula- 
tion, and  is  liable  to  set  up  short  circuits  in  the  armature.  It 
also  attracts  dust  and  dirt  and  may  cause  a  "short"  between 
the  end  of  the  wiring  of  the  coil  and  its  connection  to  the  arm- 
ature ring.  Where  ball  bearings  are  used,  a  few  drops  of  oil 
every  two  or  three  hundred  miles  will  be  sufficient.  Where 
the  bearings  are  of  the  plain  type,  there  is  generally  a  felt 
wiper  which  presses  against  the  armature  spindle  and  is  held 


86  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

in  a  tube  which  terminates  in  an  oil  cup  cast  as  part  of  the 
bearing.  The  oil  is  fed  up  from  the  oil  cup  by  capillary  at- 
traction. In  these  cases,  it  is  only  necessary  to  fill  up  the  oil 
cup  on  each  side  occasionally,  and  to  drop  one  or  two  drops 
through  the  small  hole  which  will  be  seen  leading  directly 
to  the  bearing.  The  felt  wipers  can  generally  be  removed 
from  underneath  by  undoing  one  screw  and  taking  out  a 
small  spring  which  presses  them  up  to  the  spindle.  In  time 
they  may  become  congealed  with  thick  oil,  and  should  either 
be  replaced  or  washed  with  gasolene,  so  that  the  oil  can  flow 
readily  up  through  the  interstices  of  the  felt. 

A  contact  maker  or  wiper  is  used  in  low  tension  magnetos 
to  take  off  the  current  from  the  coil  and  lead  it  by  a  wire  to 
the  igniter  plugs.  This  is  usually  a  cylindrical  carbon  pencil, 
which  is  pushed  down  by  a  spring,  its  end  coming  in  contact 
with  an  insulated  ring  rotating  with  the  armature.  The  wiper 
is  in  contact  with  the  insulated  ring  to  which  is  led  one  end 
of  the  low  tension  wiring  of  the  armature.  This  should  oc- 
casionally be  taken  out,  and  if  it  appears  to  be  glossy  at  the 
end  this  may  be  scraped  with  a  penknife,  or  preferably  ground 
slightly  on  a  grindstone  or  even  on  a  piece  of  coarse  emery 
cloth.  The  insulated  ring  should  be  kept  clean,  and  surplus 
oil  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  upon  it.  In  some 
cases  where  the  current  taken  off  is  intermittent  or  appears 
weak,  it  is  well  to  take  the  armature  out,  and  thoroughly  clean 
the  insulated  rings,  as  sometimes  a  very  fine  carbon  dust 
(caused  by  the  disintegration  of  the  end  of  the  carbon  wiper, 
owing  to  the  rotating  against  it  of  the  ring)  is  formed,  and 
may  cause  a  slight  short  circuit,  especially  when  run  at  low 
speed.  This  is  often  the  cause  of  difficulty  when  starting,  as 
when  the  engine  speed  increases,  the  higher  tension  current 
finds  its  way  by  the  metallic  connection  to  the  plugs,  and  will 
then  fire  apparently  all  right.  Troubles  with  any  magneto 
may  be  caused  through  allowing  water  to  get  into  it,  due  to 
carelessness  when  washing  down  the  car,  or  allowing  the  car 
to  stand  in  rain  with  the  bonnet  off  or  open.  The  best  remedy 
for  this  is  to  take  the  magneto  off  the  machine,  carefully 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  87 

marking  the  coupling  to  see  that  it  be  put  back  in  the  right 
position  to  insure  correct  timing,  and  to  place  it  near  a  fire 
or  in  a  very  dry  room  to  dry.  It  must  not,  however,  be  placed 
too  near  a  stove  or  the  insulation  will  be  ruined,  and  the 
armature  will  have  to  be  rewound.  We  have  heard  of  one 
case  where  a  magneto  which  had  been  sparking  badly  on  ac- 
count of  being  thoroughly  wet,  had  been  cured  by  pouring 
wood  alcohol  round  the  armature  bearings  and  the  wipers, 
but  this  is  a  drastic  remedy  which  must  only  be  undertaken 
by  those  who  know  how  much  to  apply  and  where  to  apply 
it,  otherwise  the  shellac  insulation  will  be  ruined.  The  idea 
of  using  alcohol  for  this  purpose  is  that  it  carries  the  water 
away  with  it,  and  leaves  the  appliance  dry. 

A  short  circuit  may  also  occur  in  the  wiring  leading  from 
the  magneto  to  the  igniter  plugs  and  even  in  the  igniter  plugs 
themselves ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  some  fault  in  the  wiring  be- 
tween the  igniter  plugs  and  the  switch  which  grounds  the 
current  in  order  to  stop  the  operation  of  the  engine.  In  the 
latter  case  disconnect  this  wiring  at  the  engine,  and  then  see 
if  the  engine  runs  properly.  It  may  be  found  that  the  trouble 
is  somewhere  in  this  wiring  or  in  the  switch,  which  thus 
grounds  the  current  and  interferes  with  the  inductive  effect 
of  the  magneto. 

Sometimes  intermittent  firing  when  the  car  is  running  is 
caused  by  some  exposed  part  of  the  switch  wire  swinging 
about,  and  coming  in  contact  occasionally  with  some  part  of 
the  car  frame  or  steering  gear.  The  test  for  this  is  the  same 
as  in  the  last  instance.  Sometimes  the  engine  will  not  stop 
when  the  switch  is  operated.  In  such  cases  the  fault  is  that 
there  has  been  a  breakage  in  the  wire  or  connection  of  the 
switch,  so  that  the  magneto  cannot  be  grounded  upon  itself. 
Another  short  circuit  which  will  stop  the  engine  is  that 
between  one  of  the  igniter  plugs  and  striker  arms;  that  is  to 
say,  instead  of  these  making  a  contact  only  immediately  be- 
for  the  correct  timing  contact  is  made,  the  arm  goes  back  into 
contact  immediately  after  the  rapid  break  and  remains  there 


88  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

— thus  grounding  the  magneto  at  the  time  that  other  cylin- 
ders should  be  firing. 

This  can  be  ascertained  by  disconnecting  all  the  cylinders, 
except  one,  in  rotation,  that  is  to  say,  leaving  only  one  cylin- 
der plug  in  metallic  connection  with  the  magneto.  The  one 
on  which  the  engine  will  run  when  the  others  are  put  out  of 
operation  is  the  one  which  is  in  contact  for  too  long  a  period. 
We  will  deal  with  this  adjustment  Avhen  we  come  to  the  tim- 
ing of  the  low  tension  igniters.  As  pointed  out,  a  "short"  in 
the  low  tension  system  is  not  so  likely  to  occur  as  in  the  high, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  current  has  not  got  sufficient  pres- 
sure to  force  it  through  weak  insulation.  Therefore,  the  in- 
sulated wires  for  low  tension  magneto  may  have  less  insula- 
tion on  them. 

As  regards  the  igniter  plugs,  short  circuits  may  occur  in 
these  just  the  same  as  they  may  occur  in  the  high  tension 
spark  plug,  due  to  wet  deposit  outside  the  mica  or  porcelain 
insulation,  or  due  to  carbon  deposit,  which,  forming  a  layer 
allows  the  current  to  flow  across  the  deposit  from  the  central 
insulated  stem  to  that  part  of  the  plug  which  is  screwed  into 
the  engine.  The  remedy  is  to  take  apart,  and  thoroughly 
clean  the  insulation  of  the  plug. 

Troubles  in  this  kind  of  ignition  are  almost  always  due  to 
the  wrong  timing,  and  it  will  be  well  for  the  motorist  to 
secure  full  instructions  as  to  setting  the  interrupter  arms, 
contact  arms,  and  the  interrupter  catch  gear,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  according  to  the  different  systems  of  the  arrangement 
af  the  mechanical  parts. 

Another  cause  of  loss  of  power  due  to  this  ignition  system 
is  that  the  working  shaft  on  which  the  contact  arm  is  mount- 
ed and  which  passes  from  the  outside  into  the  inside  of  the 
cylinder  does  not  make  a  proper  joint  in  the  hole  in  which  it 
fits.  On  earlier  cars,  considerable  trouble  was  caused  here, 
with  the  result  that  loss  of  compression,  and  hence  loss  of 
power,  was  found  to  take  place.  Latterly,  however,  by  ar- 
ranging these  with  ground  tapered  heads,  this  difficulty  has 
been  to  a  large  extent  overcome,  but  when  the  trouble  ap- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  89 

pears  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  off  the  whole  of  the  igniter 
mechanism  from  the  engine,  and  to  carefully  grind  in  the  seat- 
ing of  the  contact  arm.  The  contact  arm  is  drawn  up  into  this 
seat  generally  by  means  of  a  spring  outside,  and  if  this  gets 
weak,  it  may  allow  a  slight  loss  of  compression,  and  should  be 
replaced  by  a  stronger  spring,  but  if  the  joint  is  good,  the 
pressure  of  the  gases  inside  the  cylinder  itself  will  maintain 
good  contact  and  make  a  tight  joint.  The  spindle  of  the  rock- 
ing lever  must  be  kept  lubricated  constantly,  and  should  it 
wear  oval,  must  be  replaced. 

The  contact  between  the  end  of  the  contact  arm  and  the 
igniter  plug  should  be  firm.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary 
to  see  that  the  springs  which  hold  it  up  against  the  igniter 
plug  are  strong  enough  for  that  purpose. 

(b)  The  High  Tension  Magneto  System. — As  regards  the 
high  tension  system,  and  dealing  first  with  the  magneto,  any 
trouble  which  may  arise  as  regards  short  circuits  or  leakages 
will  practically  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  high  tension  coil 
and  battery  ignition,  as  far  as  the  wiring  is  concerned.  In 
the  high  tension  magneto  mechanism,  trouble  will  more  likely 
be  caused  at  the  contact  breaker  than  at  any  other  point. 
Sometimes,  excessive  pitting  takes  place  between  the  platin- 
um points  of  the  contact  breaker,  and  this  excessive  pitting 
may  indicate  something  wrong  with  the  condenser  con- 
nection. 

In  the  high  tension  magneto  machine  the  condenser  is  al- 
ways made  to  form  part  of  the  mechanism.  It  is  generally 
arranged  in  a  little  box  on  top  of  the  field  pieces.  One  side 
of  the  contact  breaker  is  grounded  in  the  usual  Way,  and  be- 
tween the  ground  and  the  positive  side  of  the  contact  breaker 
— which  leads  the  current  off  to  ground  only  when  the  points 
are  in  contact — there  is  generally  a  wiper  which  connects  up 
the  positive  part  of  the  contact  breaker  to  the  condenser.  The 
condenser  is  grounded  at  its  other  end  to  the  magneto  itself. 
If  this  wiper  is  not  making  proper  contact  with  the  insulated 
ring,  the  result  will  be  that  the  current  shunted  into  the  con- 
denser is  insufficient,  and  excessive  sparking  will  take  place  at 


90  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  contact  breaker  points.  This  may  be  due  to  the  wiper,  or 
the  insulated  ring  upon  which  it  wipes,  being  dirty,  either 
through  dust  off  the  carbon  brushes  or  foreign  matter.  In 
some  cases,  but  very  rarely,  the  wire  which  connects  up  the 
insulated  ring  may  become  detached.  This  is  generally  a 
very  thin  wire,  and  may  be  easily  soldered  up.  A  thorough 
cleaning  of  the  condenser  wiper  will  probably  put  things 
right,  which  will  be  indicated  if  the  spark  at  the  contact 
breaker  points  appears  to  be  reduced. 

Another  difficulty  which  may  often  be  traced  to  this  con- 
nection to  the  condenser  is  that  some  part  of  the  mechanism 
containing  the  spring-pushed  wiper  may  have  got  adrift.  This 
is  always  insulated  from  the  body  of  the  machine,  and  if  any- 
thing gets  loose  this  part  may  be  put  in  metallic  contact  with 
it,  so  that  the  current,  instead  of  going  across  the  sparking 
plugs,  runs  to  ground  through  the  body  of  the  magneto.  The 
screws  which  hold  the  case  carrying  the  spring-pushed  car- 
bon wiper  should  be  thoroughly  clean  and  have  good  insula- 
tion from  the  body  of  the  machine.  Sometimes  the  screws 
themselves  will  form  metallic  connection  and  effectually  stop 
the  operation  of  the  magneto. 

In  cases  such  as  the  Eisemann,  where  the  coil  is  a  sepa- 
rate unit  in  the  system,  shorts  may  occur  through  bad  con- 
nections from  the  magneto  to  the  coil.  The  current  for  the 
magneto  is  taken  off  by  a  wiper,  which  should  have  the  same 
attention  as  the  others ;  that  is  to  say,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
insulated,  kept  clean,  and  the  ring  upon  which  it  presses 
should  also  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  and  free  from  oil.  The 
same  remarks  as  regards  an  accumulation  of  fine  carbon  dust 
apply  in  this  case,  and  this  should  always  be  cleared  off. 
There  is  also  a  high  tension  wire,  which  is  led  back  from  the 
coil  to  the  distributer  on  the  magneto.  This  distributer  is 
practically  always  of  the  wipe  type.  Its  face,  or  its  edge,  as 
the  case  may  be,  should  be  kept  clean,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  central  wiper,  which  conveys  the  cur- 
rent from  the  coil  to  the  rotating  distributer,  is  making  sound 
contact.  In  the  case  of  the  Bosch  magneto,  a  safety  spark  gap 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  91 

is  provided,  and  it  may  happen  that  if  by  any  tampering  with 
the  magneto  the  points  of  this  safety  spark  gap  have  got  too 
near  together,  it  will  be  sparking  to  ground  across  these  in- 
stead of  across  the  plugs  in  the  cylinders.  This  safety  spark 
gap  should  never  be  tampered  with,  as  the  distance  apart  of 
the  points  (which  are  there  solely  for  safety  purposes  and 
to  protect  the  insulation  from  being  broken  down)  is  determ- 
ined by  the  makers,  and  if  left  at  the  distance  at  which  they 
are  set  it  will  be  found  that  no  cause  of  trouble  will  arise  from 
this  part  of  the  mechanism. 

The  points  of  the  contact  breaker  at  the  end  of  the  mag- 
neto should  always  be  carefully  filed  up  so  that  when  they 
are  in  contact  they  meet  each  other  face  to  face  and  quite 
flat.  It  is  best  when  adjusting  these  to  first  take  note  how 
they  come  together ;  then,  having  taken  them  apart,  they  may 
each  be  faced  up  with  a  very  fine  file.  Where  they  are  only 
dirty,  a  good  way  is  to  wash  them  with  gasolene  with  a  fine 
camel  hair  brush,  then  to  insert  between  them  a  piece  of 
doubled  up  fine  emery  cloth,  and  run  this  backward  and  for- 
ward so  that  it  grinds  against  the  face  of  both  contact  points. 
The  emery  should  be  brushed  away,  and  the  machine  should 
not  be  run  until  the  gasolene  has  evaporated,  otherwise  a 
flare-up  might  result.  On  no  account  should  the  magneto  be 
run  on  the  road  with  either  distributer  or  contact  breaker  un- 
covered, otherwise  dust  and  dirt  are  sure  to  accumulate  and 
interfere  with  its  working. 

The  same  course  as  regards  lubrication  applies  to  the  high 
tension  as  to  the  low  tension  magneto,  with  the  addition  that 
in  this  case  the  secondary  shaft,  which  carries  the  distributer 
disk  or  arm,  should  occasionally  be  oiled,  as  should  also  the 
gear  wheels  by  means  of  which  it  is  driven.  In  the  case  of 
the  Eisemann  using  the  helical  slot  method  of  retarding  and 
advancing  the  ignition,  it  is  necessary  that  this  should  be  kept 
clean  and  oiled,  otherwise  this  part  of  the  arrangement  will 
work  very  stiffly,  and  may  cause  injury  to  the  magneto. 
Where  the  high  tension  distributer  has  carbon  brushes  rub- 
bing against  a  segment  or  segments  on  a  rotating  disk,  it  is 


92  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

necessary  that  this  should  be  kept  quite  clean.  Sometimes 
small  particles  of  brass  are  rubbed  off  and  become  embedded 
in  the  vulcanite  or  fiber  of  which  the  distributer  disk  is  made, 
causing  a  "short"  across  which  may  result  in  premature  firing 
of  one  or  more  of  the  cylinders  and  misfiring  at  high  speeds. 

All  carbon  wipers  should  be  periodically  taken  out  and  al- 
lowed to  soak  in  gasolene  to  dissolve  any  oil  with  which  they 
may  become  impregnated,  and  they  should  then  be  cleaned  up 
with  sand-paper  or  by  very  slightly  grinding  as  mentioned 
before.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that  the  springs  which  push 
them  down  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  keep  them  in  close 
contact  with  the  ring.  The  segments  of  the  high  tension 
distributer  in  the  latest  type  of  magneto  are  coupled  internally 
to  the  terminals  on  the  top  of  the  face  of  the  machine.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  are  generally  embedded  in  pitch.  It  is 
unlikely  that  any  leakage  can  occur  here,  but  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  connections  between  the  terminals  and  the 
high  tension  wires  leading  to  the  plugs  are  very  carefully 
made,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  when  rewiring  up  after  discover- 
ing the  fault,  to  convey  the  wires  back  in  a  piece  of  rubber 
tubing,  which  will  prevent  them  coming  in  contact  with,  or 
being  rubbed  by,  any  part  of  the  mechanism. 

In  making  any  adjustment  to  the  magneto,  it  is  inadvisable 
to  screw  any  of  the  parts  up  too  tightly — just  handtight  with 
a  small  screwdriver  is  sufficient.  The  vulcanite  plugs  car- 
rying the  carbon  brushes  screwed  into  the  edge  of  the  dis- 
tributer or  the  small  brush  which  takes  off  the  high  tension 
current  from  the  ring,  should  just  be  screwed  in  tight  with 
the  fingers,  and,  although  they  have  flats  on  them  in  many 
cases,  it  is  unwise  to  use  a  spanner  to  screw  them  up,  as  if 
they  break  in  place  they  will  be  difficult  to  remove,  and  will 
have  to  be  replaced  by  new  ones. 

As  regards  timing,  a  few  words  may  be  said  here,  although 
the  subject  is  one  that  can  hardly  be  treated  with  justice  in 
the  limits  of  the  present  work,  and  it  is  of  surpassing  im- 
portance. Where  magnetos  are  driven  from  the  engine  by 
inclosed  gearing,  it  is  almost  certain  that,  unless  the  en- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  93 

gine  has  been  tampered  with  or  the  magneto  removed  by 
some  person  who  does  not  understand  it,  the  timing  will 
be  correct.  In  any  case,  it  is  not  advisable  for  the  amateur 
to  interfere  with  the  relative  positions  of  the  magneto  arma- 
ture and  the  engine  crankshaft.  Experimenting  in  this  direction 
may  result  in  his  being  unable  to  get  any  firing  in  the  engine 
at  all.  This  applies  to  both  the  high  tension  and  the  low  ten- 
sion magneto  as  regards  the  time  at  which  the  armature 
leaves  the  field.  In  the  case  of  the  high  tension  magneto  the 
timing  of  the  breaking  of  the  spark  relative  to  the  armature 
position  is  constant  in  one  form  of  Eisemann,  while  in  the 
latest,  and  in  the  Bosch,  the  contact  breaker  can  be  rocked 
over  just  in  the  same  way  as  the  contact  breaker  on  an  en- 
gine. This,  however,  need  never  be  interfered  with.  On  no 
account  should  the  operator  disconnect  the  two  wheels — the 
small  one  on  the  armature  shaft  and  the  large  one  on  the  dis- 
tributer shaft — by  means  of  which  the  latter  is  driven.  These 
are  delicately  adjusted,  so  that  at  the  central  position  of  the 
ignition  lever  the  distributer  is  making  proper  contact  to  the 
respective  plug  which  is  to  be  fired. 

Another  point  to  be  noted  is,  that  if  the  wires  be  discon- 
nected from  the  engine  and  from  the  magneto,  very  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  put  them  back  to  the  same  terminals 
on  the  magneto  and  the  same  plugs  on  the  cylinders.  If 
they  are  put  back  in  wrong  order  and  the  engine  started  up, 
very  serious  damage  to  the  engine  may  result. 

In  a  late  Simms  magneto,  looking  at  the  terminals  from 
the  front  end,  which  is  the  distributer  end,  and  when  it  is  ro- 
tating clock-wise,  the  one  on  the  extreme  left  is  taken  to  the 
cylinder  nearest  the  dashboard;  the  one  to  its  right  is  taken 
to  the  cylinder  nearest  but  one  to  the  front  of  the  engine ;  the 
next  one  to  the  right  of  the  magneto  is  taken  to  the  front 
cylinder  of  the  engine ;  and  the  last  one  on  the  right  is  taken 
to  the  cylinder  nearest  but  one  to  the  dashboard,  the  cylinders 
thus  firing  in  the  following  rotation: 

Front  cylinder,  1st;  third  cylinder,  2nd;  fourth  cylinder, 
3rd;  and  second  cylinder,  4th,  counting  the  cylinders  as  I, 


94  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

2,  3,  and  4  from  the  front  of  the  engine.  This  applies  solely 
to  a  recent  Simms  magneto  for  four  cylinders,  and  is  men- 
tioned only  by  way  of  illustration. 

Faults  due  to  wrong  timing  in  the  low  tension  magneto 
system  are  invariably  due  to  wrong  adjustment  of  the  tappet 
rods,  the  striker  arms,  and  the  igniter  mechanism. 


PREIGNITION,  OR  TOO  EARLY  FIRING. 

Symptoms:     Knock  in  engine. 

Causes:  Faulty  timing. — Ignition  too  far  advanced. — Overheating. 
— Excessive  lubrication  causing  sooty  deposit  which  becomes  in- 
candescent. 

Preignition  results  in  the  charge  being  exploded  before  the 
piston  has  reached  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  and  so  causes  a 
back  pressure  on  the  top  of  the  piston,  tending  to  reverse  the 
direction  of  rotation  of  the  crank. 

A  knocking  noise  in  the  cylinder  generally  betokens  too 
early  firing.  (See  Knock.) 

The  causes  may  be  described  under  the  following  heads : 

(a)  Timing  gear  set  wrong. — This  is  dealt  with  very  fully 
under  Timing. 

(b)  Faulty  manipulation  of  the  sparking  lever. — The  posi- 
tion of  the  sparking  lever  should  be  regulated  according  to 
the  speed  of  the  engine.    To  take  two  extremes :   When  oper- 
ating the  starting  handle  the  piston  will  move  very  slowly, 
consequently  if  preignition  is  to  be  avoided  the  spark  should 
be  retarded  as  much  as  possible.     On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  car  is  traveling  at  top  speed  on  the  level  or  down  a  slight 
incline,  the  engine  will  be  working  at  its  maximum  speed, 
and  the  spark  should  be  advanced  to  the  utmost.    This  is  an 
important  point  to  remember. 

(c)  Overheated   engine. — This   may   cause   the   charge   to 
explode  prematurely,  due  to  deposits  of  carbon  in  the  cylin- 
der or  on  the  piston  becoming  incandescent.     (See  Overheat- 
ing. 

Preignition  may  also  be  caused  through  faulty  adjustment 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  95 

of  the  ignition  mechanism,  such  as  the  magneto,  the  contact 
breaker,  and  the  distributer.  These  adjustments  are  all  dealt 
with  under  Ignition. 


KNOCK. 

Symptoms:  An  unusual  noise  in  the  cylinder  or  bearings  like  a 
knock  or  hammer  blow. 

Causes:  Ignition  advanced  too  much. — Preignition. — Short  cir- 
cuit at  contact  maker  or  contact  breaker  (low  tension  system). — 
Timing  wrong. — Overheated  engine. — Want  of  lubrication. — Unsuit- 
able oil. — Some  part  loose  or  broken. — Connecting  rod  or  crank- 
shaft bearings  loose  or  worn. — Loose  or  worn  piston  pin. — Loose  fly- 
wheel.— White  metal  linings  of  bearings  melted  out. 

A  "knock"  may  be  technically  described  as  an  unusual 
thumping  noise,  which  denotes  that  something  is  loose  which 
should  be  only  a  moving  fit  in  another  part,  and  is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  that  attending  the  regular  pulsations  of  the  exhaust 
or  the  mechanical  movements  of  the  valves  and  their  oper- 
ating gear.  Incorrect  firing  is  a  very  usual  cause.  In  every 
engine  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the  speed  of 
the  engine  and  the  most  suitable  moment  for  firing  the  gas 
charge.  If  the  firing  is  made  to  take  place  too  early  for  the 
speed  of  the  engine  the  gas  will  be  ignited  before  the  piston 
has  passed  the  top  dead  center,  and  a  violent  thumping  will 
be  caused,  with  much  strain  on  the  piston  pin,  connecting 
rod,  and  crankshaft  bearings.  The  engine  will,  in  conse- 
quence, labor,  as  the  tendency  will  be — if  the  firing  be  very 
premature — to  reverse  the  engine's  motion,  consequently  its 
speed  will  be  seriously  checked,  and  unless  the  cause  be  at 
once  removed  by  retarding  the  ignition,  the  thumping  will 
become  more  pronounced  as  the  speed  of  the  engine  dimin- 
ishes. This  trouble  is  especially  noticeable  in  governed  en- 
gines, when  the  accelerator  is  not  operated  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  the  firing  is  advanced.  The  effect  then  is  that  the 
speed  is  checked  by  the  governor,  though  the  firing  is  taking 
place  in  accordance  with  the  position  of  the  ignition  lever. 

A  noise  very  similar  to  knocking  occurs  when  an  engine 


96  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

is  put  under  too  great  a  strain  on  an  up-grade.  This  should 
always  be  regarded  as  a  sign  to  change  on  to  a  lower  gear. 

Apart  from  the  faulty  manipulation  of  the  ignition  lever, 
the  timing  may  be  fixed  wrongly  or  may  not  be  properly 
synchronized  for  the  different  cylinders.  This  is  fully  dealt 
with  under  Ignition. 

A  short  circuit  at  the  contact  maker  will  cause  a  knock  b} 
premature  firing  in  the  cylinder  affected.  The  presence  of 
much  carbon  on  the  piston  head,  or  in  the  combustion 
chamber,  will  also  cause  premature  firing;  the  same  applies 
to  the  effect  of  running  an  overheated  engine,  which,  if  per- 
sisted in,  may  result  in  the  piston  or  pistons  seizing.  It 
should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  matter  of  overheat- 
ing, which  causes  premature  firing  by  incandescence — as  it  is 
termed — some  motors  are  more  prone  to  the  trouble  than 
others.  (See  Preignition,  in  this  series  of  articles.) 

Want  of  lubrication,  or  the  use  of  unsuitable  oil,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  amount,  are  also  possible  causes  of  knock.  No- 
thing is  more  fatal  to  the  life  of  a  motor  than  inattention  to 
this  point,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  though  itself 
removable,  the  ill-effects  produced  on  the  moving  parts  will 
soon  entail  a  substantial  overhaul  of  the  engine.  (See  Lubri- 
cation. 

A  knock  may  arise  from  mechanical  causes,  such  as  the 
looseness  of  the  piston  pin  in  its  bearing  in  the  piston,  or  the 
connecting  rod  bush,  or  the  crank  pin  bearing  on  the  same 
rod,  or  play  in  the  bearings  of  the  crankshaft ;  also  from 
loosening  of  the  flywheel  on  the  crankshaft  or  in  the  case  of 
inclosed  flywheels  from  the  same  getting  out  of  correct  align- 
ment. Occasionally,  too,  the  bearings  themselves  become 
loose  in  the  crank  casing,  due  chiefly  to  the  small  feather, 
which  secures  the  one  half  from  turning  in  its  bed,  becoming 
loose  or  being  sheared.  When  such  occurs  it  is  possible  for 
the  bearing  to  become  badly  scored,  as  the  oil  holes  in  the 
base  chamber  and  the  Gearing  will  have  ceased  to  be  in  line. 
Engines  fitted  with  a  forced  lubrication  system  are  not  likely 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  97 

to  suffer  this  derangement;  such  can  then  only  occur  if  the 
filter  gauzes,  or  chamber,  or  main  conduit  become  stopped. 
The  mechanically-caused  "knock"  may  be  diagnosed  by  its 
being  continuous,  starting  with  the  first  impulse  at  the  pis- 
ton. It  is  especially  harmful  when  it  is  in  the  up-and-down 
direction,  or  fore-and-aft  in  the  case  of  horizontal  engines. 
A  certain  amount  of  lateral  or  side  play  is  negligible — a  little 
is  even  necessary — but  up  and  down  play  must  be  at  once 
corrected,  for  the  reason  that  the  stress  caused  by  such  play, 
even  if  confined  at  first  to  the  piston  or  crank  pin,  will  soon 
play  havoc  with  every  bearing  in  the  engine,  and  the  effect  is 
intensified  by  the  hammer-like  blow  due  to  the  violence  of  the 
firing  impulse  which  accompanies  it.  The  crank  pin  bearing 
is  usually  the  first  item  to  develop  a  knock.  In  cases  where 
the  big  ends  of  the  connecting  rods  are  lined  with  white 
metal,  lack  of  lubrication  may  cause  them  to  become  so  hot 
that  the  metal  will  melt  and  run  out.  After  this  has  happened, 
the  engine  should  not  be  run  until  the  bearing  has  been  re- 
lined  and  scraped  by  a  competent  engineer's  fitter. 

Loose  bearings  in  the  gear  case,  or  otherwise  connected 
with  the  transmission,  or  the  slackening  of  a  bolt,  such  as 
those  that  hold  the  two  halves  of  the  gear  case  together,  may 
cause  a  noise  somewhat  resembling  a  knock.  This  trouble 
can  often  be  diagnosed  by  touch,  as  it  is  accompanied  by  a 
certain  ahiount  of  vibration,  and  generally  increases  with  the 
speed  of  the  engine. 

A  remedy  for  knocking,  where  the  trouble  is  the  piston  pin, 
is  to  fit  a  new  bush  in  the  small  end  of  the  connecting  rod. 
This  bush*  should  fit  very  tightly  in  the  connecting  rod  end, 
and,  after  having  been  placed  in  position,  should  be  properly 
drilled  for  the  lubricating  hole.  It  should  also  be  provided, 
on  its  upper  surface  inside,  with  a  groove  to  allow  the  oil  to 
flow  freely  along  the  whole  length  of  the  bearing.  If  the 
knock  is  due  to  the  piston  pin  being  loose  in  the  piston,  it 
will  have  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  one.  A  knock  at  the  big 
end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  generally  caused  by  the  brasses 
wearing,  or  in  some  cases  may  be  due  to  the  holding  up  bolts 


98  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

coming  loose.  If  the  latter,  tightening  up  the  bolts  will  be 
sufficient.  If  the  former,  the  brasses  must  be  taken  out  and 
have  their  edges  carefully  filed  so  as  to  bring  them  into  closer 
contact  with  the  crank  pin.  In  such  case,  however,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  scrape  the  bearing  surfaces  until  they  are  a  cor- 
rect fit,  so  that  the  connecting  rod  can  be  easily  moved  by  the 
fingers  around  the  crank  pin  without  any  tendency  to  bind, 
or,  when  the  holding  up  bolts  are  tightened,  to  shake. 

As  regards  the  knock  which  is  the  result  of  slackness  in 
the  main  bearing  of  the  crankshaft,  this  means  the  refitting 
of  these  bearings,  which  must  be  done  by  a  competent  fitter 
and  cannot  be  undertaken  by  the  ordinary  owner.  Knock 
technically  denotes  looseness  in  reciprocating  parts  or  parts 
which  have  to  bear  a  strain  first  in  one  direction  and  then  in 
another.  Other  noises  which  are  easily  distinguishable  from 
knock  are  dealt  with  under  Noise  in  this  series  of  articles. 


LEAKS. 

Symptoms:  In  the  case  of  failure  of  gasolene  to  reach  carbureter 
rapid  falling  of  gasolene  level  in  float  chamber. — In  the  case  of  pres- 
sure fed  tanks  failure  of  gasolene  to  reach  carbureter  owing  to  air 
leakage. — Engine  overheats;  bearings  become  hot;  loss  of  power; 
sluggishness. 

Causes:  In  gravity  fed  carbureters  leakage  in  supply  pipe  to  car- 
bureter or  shaking  loose  of  bottom  cover  to  strainer  in  carbureter. 
— In  pressure  fed  carbureters  leakage  of  air  pressure  either  in  air 
pipe  from  exhaust  or  from  the  tank  itself. — Leakage  of  water  in 
water  circulation. — Leakage  of  oil  in  cases  of  forced  feed  lubrica- 
tion.— Oil  relief  valve  not  acting. — Air  relief  valve  not  acting. 

Leaks  may  occur  of  gasolene,  water,  or  pressure  (air  or  ex- 
haust gas),  and  are  some  of  the  most  annoying  troubles  of  the 
motorist. 

Gasolene. — Failure  in  pipes,  connections,  or  the  fuel  tan& 
will  cause  a  leak.  The  soldering  iron  can  safely  be  used. 
In  the  case  of  unions  or  connections,  leather  or  fiber  washers 
will  generally  get  over  the  trouble.  A  faced  joint  can  be 
temporarily  repaired  by  thickly  smearing  the  two  faces  with 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  99 

boiled  linseed  oil  before  putting  together.  To  make  a  per- 
manent job  the  joint  should  be  refaced. 

A  leaking  packing  joint  can  sometimes  be  staunched  by 
tightening  up  the  holding  bolts,  the  first  to  be  tightened  being 
those  nearest  the  leak,  but  unless  the  joint  is  in  an  awkward 
place  it  is  better  to  put  in  a  new  packing. 

Coupling  joints  should  make  a  true  and  tight  joint  without 
packing,  but  if  this  cannot  be  done  a  thin  fiber  packing  wash- 
er may  be  placed  between  the  ends  of  the  pipes  to  be  joined. 
If  the  leak  is  behind  the  coupling  nut,  a  little  asbestos  string 
wound  round  the  end  of  the  pipe  close  to  the  flange  before 
the  nut  is  slipped  into  position  will  often  prevent  any  leak 

Any  packing  used  for  the  gland  of  a  pump  should  be  well 
greased  with  tallow  before  being  put  in  the  stuffing  box. 

Water. — Leaks  in  the  water-cooling  system  are  always  an- 
noying and  should  receive  prompt  attention. 

Pressure. — Escape  of  pressure  from  the  cylinders  is  dealt 
with  under  Compression,  in  the  pages  that  precede.  In 
the  case  of  pressure  feed,  the  pipe  conveying  the  pressure 
from  the  exhaust  may  be  faulty,  the  pressure  valve  may  be 
out  of  order,  the  cap  of  the  tank  may  not  be  a  true  fit,  or 
the  exhaust  pressure  pipe  may  be  choked;  the  latter  failure 
cannot  be  described  as  a  leak,  but  it  has  the  same  effect. 

In  the  case  of  forced  lubrication,  if  a  leak  occurs  in  any 
part  of  the  circulating  system,  it  will  seriously  interfere  with 
the  proper  lubrication  of  the  part.  It  may  happen  that  a  un- 
ion becomes  unscrewed  through  vibration,  in  which  case  the 
oil  will  be  forced  out  there  instead  of  being  circulated  round 
the  bearing,  and  overheating  and  other  troubles  will  ensue. 
The  remedy,  of  course,  is  to  periodically  examine  the  oil  cir- 
culating system,  and  see  that  all  unions  are  screwed  up  tight. 
In  some  cases  of  forced  lubrication,  there  is  a  relief  valve 
which  allows  the  oil,  after  a  certain  pressure  has  been  reached, 
to  flow  back  into  the  sump.  It  may  happen  that  this  valve 
leaks,  in  which  case,  although  everything  is  apparently  going 
on  all  right,  the  pump  will  be  drawing  oil  from  the  sump  and 
returning  it  to  it,  instead  of  causing  it  to  flow  round  through 


ioo  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  bearing  as  intended.    It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  see  that 
there  is  no  leak  in  this  valve. 

LUBRICATION. 

Symptoms:  Overheating. — Car  runs  sluggishly. — Engine  misfires. 
— Smells. — Piston  sticks  or  seizes. — Bearings  seize  or  become  scored. 
— Smoke  from  exhaust. — Noise  and  heat. — Worn  bearings. — Warm 
bearings. 

Causes:  Faulty  lubrication.— Wrong  consistency  of  oil. — Pipes 
choked. — Relief  valve  sticking. — Relief  valve  spring  too  weak. — Oil 
pump  spindle  sheared. — Oil  pump  drive  broken. — Particles  of  metal 
in  the  oil. 

The  troubles  which  are  likely  to  arise  from  inattention  to 
proper  lubrication  are  dealt  with  below. 

The  theory  of  lubrication  and  the  various  methods  em- 
ployed make  an  interesting  study  for  the  motorist  and  one 
well  worth  his  time  to  undertake. 

The  following  are  the  vital  points  to  be  maae  a  careful 
note  of: 

Correct  quality.     (See  Lubricating  Oil.) 

Correct  viscosity.     (See  Lubricating  Oil.) 

Correct  quantity. 

Lubricate  copiously  at  first. 

See  that  the  supply  is  maintained  in  the  crank  chamber. 

See  that  the  oil  is  flowing  properly  through  the  lubricators, 
and,  if  not,  clean  the  pipes. 

If  pressure  fed,  see  that  the  pressure  is  not  escaping. 

Keep  the  grease  pots  filled. 

Carry  a  reserve  of  oil. 

In  air-cooled  engines  trouble  may  arise  through  using  an 
oil  of  too  low  a  flash-point  and  of  insufficient  viscosity.  This 
may  result  in  overheating  of  the  engine  and  even  in  the  seiz- 
ing of  the  piston.  In  the  case  of  a  seized  piston  either  in  an 
air-cooled  or  a  water-cooled  cylinder  a  remedy  is  to  apply 
gasolene  or  kerosene  and  allow  the  engine  to  cool,  when  very 
often  the  piston  may  be  freed  by  turning  the  starting  handle. 

In  modern  motor  cars  water-cooled  engines  are  principally 
used — with  one  or  two  notable  exceptions — and  lubrication 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  101 

methods  have  been  wonderfully  improved.  Should  it  be  no- 
ticed, in  the  case  of  sight  feed  lubricators  on  the  dashboard 
where  bucket  chains  or  similar  contrivances  are  used,  that 
the  oil  is  not  dropping  through  the  sight  feed,  it  will  often  be 
found  that  the  belt  or  other  connection  by  means  of  which  the 
lubricator  is  driven  has  become  broken  or  otherwise  inoper- 
ative. The  remedy,  of  course,  will  be  to  rejoin  the  belt,  or  if 
it  has  been  lost,  to  fit  a  new  one. 

Trouble  with  lubrication  may  be  caused  by  using  a  thick 
oil  in  cold  weather  so  that  it  is  of  too  great  viscosity  at  the 
low  temperature  to  allow  it  to  drop  freely  through  the  sight 
feeds.  Generally  speaking,  a  thinner  oil  is  preferable  for  use 
in  winter  and  a  heavier  oil  in  summer.  In  those  cases  where 
the  oil  tank  is  heated  either  by  a  by-pass  from  the  exhaust  or 
by  being  put  under  the  bonnet  and  very  near  the  engine,  the 
precaution  of  using  different  oils  for  different  temperatures 
becomes  unnecessary. 

Drip  sight  feed  lubricators  should  be  cleaned  out  periodi- 
cally. A  good  method  is  to  fill  up  the  oil  tank  with  kerosene 
instead  of  oil,  and  rotate  the  engine  by  hand  so  as  to  circu- 
late kerosene  through  all  the  pipes,  which  will  have  the  effect 
of  cleaning  them.  The  kerosene  having  afterward  been  thor- 
oughly drained  out,  a  proper  lubricant  can  be  substituted. 
Sight  feed  lubricators  should  be  adjusted  to  give  a  faster  feed 
when  the  engine  is  new — say  for  the  first  500  miles — after 
which  a  lesser  quantity  will  be  sufficient. 

In  the  case  of  pressure  fed  lubrication  where  an  engine- 
driven  pump  forces  the  oil  from  the  sump  in  the  crank  case 
to  the  various  bearings,  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  all  the  pipes 
are  clear,  and  that  each  bearing  is  getting  its  due  amount  of 
oil.  This  can  be  ascertained  by  undoing  the  unions  which 
couple  the  pipes  to  the  "leads"  inside  the  crank  case  and  then 
rotating  the  engine,  when  it  will  be  seen  whether  the  oil 
flows  through  each  of  the  pipes. 

In  case  there  is  any  obstruction,  it  may  be  generally  cleared 
by  attaching  a  tire-pump  and  pumping  air  through  at  high 
pressure.  In  this  system  of  lubrication  there  is  a  relief  valve 


102  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

so  that,  when  the  engine  is  running  at  a  high  speed,  the  re- 
sistance to  the  flow  of  the  oil  and  the  work  which  the  pump 
has  to  do  is  relieved  by  allowing  some  of  the  oil  to  flow  back 
through  a  spring-pressed  valve  into  the  sump.  If  this  valve 
gets  stuck  up  so  that  it  does  not  open,  considerable  strain  may 
be  put  on  the  pump  and  its  driving  mechanism  when  the  en- 
gine speed  is  accelerated,  and  the  spindle  may  even  shear,  in 
which  case  the  lubrication  will  be  stopped  altogether.  Where 
the  pump  is  driven  by  a  flexible  connection,  the  spring  may 
break  and  the  pump  become  inoperative.  It  is  well,  therefore, 
to  occasionally  clean  out  the  relief  valve. 

If  the  spring  of  the  relief  valve  becomes  weakened  the 
valve  may  open  at  a  very  low  oil  pressure,  and  the  oil  may 
be  returned  to  the  sump  rather  than  being  forced  through 
the  lubricating  system.  In  such  a  case  the  bearings  of  the 
engine  will  suffer,  and  the  lack  of  sufficient  lubrication  may 
not  be  noticed  by  the  driver  until  considerable  damage  has 
been  done.  In  this  system  of  lubrication  it  is  the  general 
practice  to  fit  a  manometer,  or  pressure  gauge,  in  some  part 
of  the  circulation  between  the  pump  outlet  and  the  engine 
bearing.  This  will  give  a  reading  as  regards  the  pressure  of 
the  oil  being  forced  to  the  engine,  and  if  this  pressure  fails 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  there  is  a  leak  somewhere 
between  pump  and  pressure  gauge,  and  in  most  cases  it  will 
be  found  that  this  leak  is  due  to  a  weak  spring  in  the  relief 
valve,  allowing  the  oil  to  flow  back  to  the  base  chamber.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  manometer  needle  reaches  too  high  a 
pressure,  it  is  an  indication  that  there  is  a  stoppage  in  some 
of  the  circulating  pipes,  and  that  the  oil,  instead  of  flowing 
to  the  bearing,  is  going  back  to  the  sump  via  the  relief  valve 

To  ascertain  whether  the  pump  is  working  properly,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  uncouple  any  of  the  "leads"  from  the  pump 
to  the  crank  case  and  to  rotate  the  engine.  In  those  cases 
where  a  by-pass  from  the  exhaust  causes  pressure  on  the  top 
of  the  oil  in  the  tank  and  so  forces  it  through  the  sight  feeds 
to  the  engine,  lubrication  may  be  stopped  completely  by  a 
leakage.  This  leakage  may  be  due  to  unions  becoming  loose 


"AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  103 

or  to  the  spring  of  the  air  relief  valve  becoming  weakened. 
It  will  be  denoted  by  the  failure  of  the  oil  to  flow  through 
the  sight  feed  glasses.  On  the  other  hand,  if  with  this  type 
of  lubrication  the  oil  pours  through  the  glasses  when  the 
needle  valves  are  set  at  their  normal  position,  it  may  be  taken 
for  granted  that  the  relief  valve  is  not  working,  and  that  there 
is  too  much  pressure  on  the  top  of  the  oil,  causing  excessive 
lubrication,  which  will  result  in  overheating  and  carbonizing 
in  the  cylinder,  and  possibly  subsequent  misfiring  due  there- 
to. The  remedy  is  to  take  out  and  adjust  the  spring-con- 
trolled relief  valve,  which  is  usually  provided  with  a  thumb 
nut  adjustment.  This  valve  may  require  grinding  on  its  seat, 
the  result  of  becoming  pitted  by  the  exhaust  gases  which  pass 
through  it. 

The  lubrication  of  the  clutch  is  dealt  with  under  the  head- 
ing Clutch. 

Trouble  may  arise  from  want  of,  or  improper,  lubrication  in 
the  gear  box.  The  automobilist  will  naturally  follow  the  in- 
structions of  the  makers  as  to  the  height  of  oil  and  the  nature 
of  the  oil  to  be  used.  In  most  modern  cars  the  bearings  of 
the  gear  box  are  lubricated  from  the  sight  feed  lubricator  on 
the  dashboard  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  engine,  and 
this  extends  also  in  many  cases  to  the  differential  gear.  There 
are  draw-off  plugs  at  the  bottom  of  the  gear  box  and  the  dif- 
ferential box,  and  there  are  also  plugs  usually  in  the  side  of 
both  these  boxes  to  enable  the  user  to  fill  up  to  the  correct 
level.  It  may  often  happen  however  that,  when  fitting  up,  if 
the  oil  used  is  very  thick,  it  will  pass  the  overflow  plug  and 
owing  to  the  gear  box  being  practically  air-tight,  the  oil  will 
not  flow  out.  To  guard  against  this,  it  is  necessary,  when 
filling  up,  to  take  out  the  overflow  plug  first  and  to  fill  up 
very  gradually  so  that  the  oil  can  flow  through  the  overflow 
plug  hole  immediately  it  rises  to  its  level ;  allowing  the  air  to 
come  in  to  take  the  place  of  the  outflowing  oil.  If  there  is 
any  doubt  as  to  the  level  of  the  oil  being  higher  than  the  over- 
flow hole,  this  may  be  tested  by  inserting  through  the  over- 
flow hole  a  short  curved  piece  of  thin  copper  tubing.  This 


104  'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

will  allow  the  air  to  enter  the  top  of  the  gear  box,  and  if 
the  oil  then  flows,  the  operator  may  know  that  there  is  too 
much  oil  in  the  gear  box.  A  similar  result  may  be  obtained 
by  loosening  the  bolts  which  hold  the  cover  on  and  allowing 
the  cover  to  open  slightly  to  let  in  the  air. 

Lubricating  pipes  often  become  broken  owing  to  vibration. 
In  such  cases  they  may  be  temporarily  repaired  by  pushing 
over  their  adjacent  ends  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  and  binding 
it  with  copper  wire.  They  may  afterward  be  permanently  re- 
paired by  sweating  or  soldering  a  sleeve  of  copper  tube  over 
the  broken  ends. 

The  oil  in  the  gear  box  will  naturally  become  impreg- 
nated with  fine  particles  of  metal  due  to  wear  on  the  gear 
wheels.  The  quantity  of  this  will  be  abnormal  if  the  motor- 
ist is  not  skillful  in  changing  gears  and  allows  the  gear 
wheels  to  grind  against  one  another.  As  these  particles  of 
metal  will  act  as  an  abrasive  on  the  bearings,  it  is  necessary 
to  very  frequently  clean  out  the  oil  from  the  gear  box.  This 
oil  may  be  used  again  if  it  is  filtered.  Oil  filters  are  to  be 
had  which  completely  filter  the  oil  and  leave  it  in  a  condition 
to  be  used  again  in  the  case  of  gear  boxes  and  differentials. 
An  efficient  filter  may  be  made  by  using  fine  linen,  allowing 
the  oil  to  gradually  soak  through  this  into  a  vessel  under- 
neath. In  the  case  of  the  engine  it  is  not  a  good  practice  to 
use  the  oil  over  again  owing  to  the  carbonization  which  will 
have  taken  place,  but  waste  oil  from  the  engine  may  with 
advantage  be  used  in  gear  boxes.  All  working  parts  should 
be  well  lubricated  as  described  under  Overhauling. 

The  joints  at  the  end  of  a  propeller  or  universal  jointed 
shaft  should  be  incased  in  leather  and  stuffed  with  grease. 
The  same  applies  to  the  joints  of  the  connecting  rods  and 
links  of  the  steering  gear.  The  method  of  fitting  these  steer- 
ing gear  covers  so  as  to  attain  the  twofold  object  of  efficient 
lubrication,  and  keeping  the  parts  together  in  case  of  a  fail- 
ure in  the  pins  or  connections,  is  described  and  Illustrated 
under  Steering. 

Sufficient  attention  is  seldom  given  to  the   lubrication  of 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  105 

the  springs.  The  springing-  of  the  car  will  be  greatly  im- 
proved if  there  is  proper  lubrication  between  each  lamination 
of  each  spring.  The  best  way  to  lubricate  these,  where 
proper  lubricating  devices  are  not  fitted,  is  to  jack  up  the 
body  of  the  car,  leaving  the  wheels  on  the  ground  and  lift- 
ing the  body  high  enough  to  take  all  weight  off  the  springs, 
or,  in  fact,  to  slightly  extend  the  springs  instead  of  com- 
pressing them.  The  end  of  each  lamination  may  then  be 
pried  open  with  a  sharp  chisel,  and  grease  lubrication  can  be 
applied  between  them  by  using  a  thin  palette  knife.  The 
lubrication  of  the  wheels  should  be  carried  out  as  described 
in  Overhauling. 

MISFIRING. 

Symptoms:     Explosion. — Loss  of  power. — Foul  exhaust. 

Causes:  Ignition. — Short  circuits  in  wiring  terminals,  plug,  switch, 
distributer  or  battery. — Battery  run  down. — Coil  defective. — Dirty 
or  faulty  plug. — Contact  maker  blades  not  making  firm  contact,  or 
vibrating  too  slowly. — Brass  segment  in  disk  scored  or  worn. — 
Fiber  swollen. — Terminals  loose  or  dirty. — In  low  tension  magneto 
ignition,  contact  arm  wrongly  adjusted. — Broken  or  weak  spring  on 
striker  arm. — Short  in  igniter  or  wires. — Faulty  switch. — In  high 
tension  magneto,  short  in  wires  or  switch,  contact  breaker,  or 
distributer. 

Carburation:  Dirt  or  water  in  carbureter. — Insufficient  charge. — 
Jet  choked,  of  insufficient  bore,  too  large,  or  frozen. — Filter  choked. 
— Float  punctured. — Valve  spindle  bent  or  worn. — Leakage  of  pres- 
sure, pressure  valve  not  set  properly  or  sticking  (in  the  case  of 
pressure  feed). — Vacuum  in  supply  tank  through  want  of  air  inlet 
(in  case  of  gravity  feed). — Insufficient  supply  of  hot  air. — Displace- 
ment of  carbureter  so  that  float  touches  side  of  float  chamber. 

Misfiring  is  caused  by  a  failure  to  explode  the  charge,  and 
is  generally  indicated  by  sluggish  or  jerky  running,  loss  of 
power,  explosions  in  the  muffler,  foul  exhaust,  sooted  plugs, 
and  even  stuck  up  valves.  The  causes  are  many,  but  as  they 
are  nearly  all  dealt  with  under  other  headings,  we  shall  only 
deal  briefly  with  the  subject. 

As  regards  the  troubles  tabulated,  loose  platinum  tips  in 
contact  maker  and  a  defective  coil  are  the  most  difficult  to 


io6  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

diagnose.  If  the  trembler  spring  is  too  stiff,  the  duration  of 
contact  at  high  speeds  will  not  be  sufficient  and  misfires  will 
result.  If  missing  only  occurs  when  the  sparking  is  ad- 
vanced it  will  often  be  found  that  the  battery  is  run  down 
or  the  coil  defective.  Very  often  trouble  is  caused  if  the 
sparking  points  are  too  far  apart.  If  there  is  too  short  a 
make  before  the  break  in  the  primary  circuit  misfires  may 
result.  General  instructions  on  Ignition  and  Carburation, 
and  those  on  "Ignition  Troubles"  and  "Carburation  Trou- 
bles" in  the  pages  that  precede  should  be  carefully  read,  for 
any  failure  under  these  heads  may  cause  misfiring./ 

MUFFLER   TROUBLES. 

Symptoms:     (1)  Explosions.     (2)  Loss  of  Power.     (3)  Rattle. 

Causes:  (1)  Shorts. — Insufficient  current. — Switching  off  and  on.—- 
Sooted  plug. — Bad  carburation.  (2)  Muffler  choked.  (3)  Plates  inside 
muffler  loose. 

Misfires  are  the  most  fruitful  source  of  muffler  troubles. 
These  generally  happen  through  the  ignition  being  faulty  and 
an  unexploded  charge  getting  into  the  muffler,  which  the 
next  exploded  charge  ignites.  A  sooted  or  faulty  plug,  an 
exhausted  battery,  or  wrong  adjustment  of  the  coil  trem- 
blers, are  the  most  usual  causes.  If  the  engine  is  stopped  by 
switching  off  the  current,  or  if  the  current  is  switched  off 
temporarily  while  running  downhill,  an  unexploded  charge 
may  be  left  in  the  muffler,  and  get  ignited  when  the  engine 
is  restarted.  In  some  cases  the  end  of  a  muffler  has  been 
blown  out  through  this.  Bad  carburation  is  also  a  fruitful 
source  of  explosions.  (See  Misfires,  Short  Circuits,  and  Car- 
buration Troubles. 

Loss  of  power  is  frequently  caused  by  the  muffler  being 
choked  with  a  heavy  deposit,  due  to  over-lubrication.  The 
muffler  must  be  dismantled  and  cleaned.  In  some  cases  the 
deposit  must  be  burnt  out.  The  exhaust  pipe  also  may  be 
partially  choked,  and  should  be  cleaned. 

A  split  muffler  or  failure  in  the  exhaust  pipe  packing  will 
cause  a  noise,  which  sometimes  is  sharp  and  almost  metallic, 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  107 

and  at  others  more  of  a  hissing  or  puffing  nature.  Loose 
nuts  or  loose  exhaust  pipe  unions  may  also  cause  the  same 
effect. 

NOISE. 

Symptoms:  Knocking  noise  as  though  two  parts  were  violently 
hitting  each  other. — Grating  or  grinding  noise,  as  though  two  parts 
were  grinding  against  each  other. — Rattle  of  parts  generally. — Hissing 
noises  as  of  escape  of  air  or  gas. 

Causes:  Knocking  due  to  looseness  in  the  connections  of  the 
reciprocating  parts  and  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  engine. 
(This  is  fully  dealt  with  under  "Knock"  in  this  series  of  articles.) 
— Grating  or  grinding  noises  due  to  insufficient  lubrication. — Small 
parts  and  connections  being  loose. — Bad  joints  in  air,  gas,  or  exhaust 
pipes. — Bad  joints  between  plugs  and  cylinder  walls  or  valve  covering 
caps. — Leaky  compression  cocks  or  their  joints. 

Noise  is  one  of  the  most  objectionable  defects  in  a  car,  and 
as  a  noise  of  any  kind  in  any  mechanism  not  only  denotes 
loss  of  power  but  also  increased  wear,  every  effort  should 
be  made  to  check  noise  which  is  considered  abnormal. 

Noise  which  denotes  inefficiency  in  mechanism  and  en- 
gines may  be  divided  roughly  into  three  classes: — (i) 
Knocking,  which  is  produced  solely  by  improper  impact  be- 
tween two  or  more  parts ;  (2)  grating,  which  is  produced  by 
a  grinding  action  between  two  parts  which  ought  to  move 
freely  upon  each  other;  and  (3)  atmospheric,  which  is  caused 
by  either  an  explosion  of  gas,  which  ought  not  to  take  place, 
by  the  emission  of  gas,  or  by  an  exhaust  of  used  gases  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cause  an  objectionable  noise. 

The  loss  of  power  in  class  (i)  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  any  knock  or  impact  must  be  caused  by  a  greater  pres- 
sure being  put  on  the  objects  which  knock  than  is  requisite 
to  bring  them  into  their  proper  position,  and  the  knock  is 
what  we  may  term  the  taking  up  of  extra  power,  which  is, 
of  course,  lost. 

In  grating  noises  (2)  there  is  a  distinct  indication  of  loss 
of  power,  as  when  the  grinding  takes  place  this  means  fric- 
tion, and  the  power  is  thus  lost  and  dissipated  in  the  form 
of  heat 


io8  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Similarly,  in  what  we  may  term  atmospheric  noises  (3), 
if  these  are  of  the  explosive  kind,  it  is  evident  that  some 
gas  is  being  wrongly  exploded  which  ought  to  be  exploded 
inside  the  cylinder  and  doing  useful  work.  If  the  noise 
takes  the  form  of  a  hiss  or  something  between  a  hiss  and 
an  explosion,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  gas  is 
being  forced  out  through  some  orifice  which  is  so  shaped 
as  to  greatly  retard  its  rejection,  which  means  that  power 
is  being  lost  in  forcing  it  out. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  user  of  a  motor 
car  that  he  should  be  able  to  differentiate  between  these 
three  kinds  of  noises,  and  one  who  has  been  accustomed  to 
any  kind  of  machinery,  even  though  it  be  of  a  noisy  descrip- 
tion, is  able,  immediately  any  unusual  noise  takes  place,  to 
class  it  under  any  one  of  the  three  heads  we  have  mentioned, 
which  at  once  narrows  down  the  field  of  his  investigation  as 
to  its  cause. 

Taking  the  different  causes  of  noise  in  the  order  in  which 
we  have  classified  them,  knock  can  almost  always  be  attrib- 
uted to  some  bearing  or  journal  having  become  loose  or 
worn,  and  is  fully  dealt  with  under  "Knock"  in  the  preceding 
pages. 

In  the  case  of  cams  or  rods  operating  the  valves,  these 
may  work  well  for  a  time  until  their  surfaces  become  slightly 
worn  or  their  ends  hammered  down.  This  will  result  not 
only  in  the  valves  closing  rather  quicker  and  with  a  sharper 
impact,  but  also,  on  the  rise  of  the  cam,  the  space  caused  by 
the  wear  will  have  to  be  taken  up,  and  the  plunger  will  have 
to  travel  a  greater  distance  before  it  comes  into  contact  with 
the  valve  stem.  The  remedy  is  the  readjustment  of  the 
valve  plungers.  (See  "Valves.") 

Under  the  class  of  grating  noises  we  have  a  source  of  con- 
siderable loss  of  power,  owing  to  the  fact  that  an  abnormal 
amount  of  friction  must  be  taking  place  before  it  is  heard. 
Whenever  this  grinding  noise  is  heard,  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  something  has  got  hot  and  that  lubrication  is  wanted. 
It  is  most  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  gears,  either  the 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  109 

change  speed  or  the  differential,  and  usually  'denotes  lack  of 
lubrication.  Sometimes  in  the  case  of  gears  which  have  be- 
come very  much  worn,  the  grating  sound  is  commingled  with 
a  distinct  knocking  or  vibration  as  the  teeth  come  into  en- 
gagement with  each  other  and  have  to  take  up  the  backlash 
caused  by  the  wear  between  their  engaging  faces. 

Atmospheric  noises  are  generally  caused  by  the  exhaust. 
In  many  well-designed  cars  an  exhaust  muffler  is  put  on 
which  is  efficient  so  far  as  its  function  of  silencing  goes,  but, 
like  every  other  part  of  the  car,  it.  is  necessary  that  it  should 
have  careful  attention,  otherwise  conditions  will  arise  which 
prevent  its  performing  its  duties  properly.  Thus  a  consider- 
able accumulation  of  carbon  either  inside  the  pipes  leading 
to  the  muffler  or  inside  the  muffler  itself  may  so  restrict  the 
passages  that  the  exhaust  has  considerable  difficulty  in  es- 
caping, and  can  only  do  so  with  a  hissing  noise.  Whenever 
this  noise  becomes  greater  than  that  usually  experienced  from 
the  exhaust,  attention  should  be  given  to  it,  because  not 
only  does  the  carbon  deposit  restrict  the  passages  in  which 
it  is  deposited,  but  it  acts  as  a  most  efficient  retainer  of  the 
heat,  and  prevents  the  exhaust  gases  being  cooled  as  they 
ought  to  be  during  their  passage  through  the  muffler.  Thus 
they  not  only  have  a  restricted  area  through  which  to  pass, 
but  their  volume  is  kept  higher  than  it  should  be,  both  these 
effects  tending  to  multiply  each  other  as  regards  the  cause  of 
the  hissing  noise.  The  cause  is  generally  to  be  found  in  too 
much  lubrication  of  the  engine,  or  the  use  of  an  improper 
mixture,  and  the  remedy  is  to  thoroughly  clean  out  all  the 
exhaust  pipes  and  the  chambers  of  the  muffler,  to  drive  the 
car  so  as  to  use  the  best  mixture,  and  to  supply  it  with  lubri- 
cant in  exactly  the  right  quantity,  without  any  excess. 

Explosive  noises  are  generally  caused  by  an  ignition  of 
gas  either  in  the  carbureter  passages  or  in  the  exhaust  box. 
This,  of  course,  is  an  indication  that  explosive  gases  which 
ought  to  be  used  in  the  cylinder  are  escaping.  In  the  case 
of  explosion,  or  popping,  in  the  carbureter  the  causes  of  the 
trouble  and  the  remedies  are  fully  described  under  "Carbura- 


no  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

tion   Troubles"    and    "Blow    Back." 

Explosions  in  the  muffler  are  mostly  caused  by  misfires, 
usually  due  to  some  defect  in  the  ignition  system.  When 
this  takes  place  the  gas  charge,  which  should  be  fired  in  the 
cylinder,  is  forced  out  into  the  exhaust  passages,  and  is  nat- 
urally ignited  by  the  red  hot  exhaust  which  follows  on  the 
next  proper  power  stroke.  The  remedy  is,  of  course,  to  see 
that  the  ignition  is  so  regulated  that  it  fires  after  each  com- 
pression stroke.  (See  "Muffler  Troubles"  in  the  preceding 
pages.) 

Perhaps  the  most  objectionable  form  of  noise  is  that  caused 
by  a  general  looseness  all  round;  parts  shaking  about  which 
ought  to  be  rigidly  attached  to  some  portion  of  the  mech- 
anism. This  denotes  a  general  carelessness  in  attention  to 
the  machine,  and  can  only  be  obviated  by  frequent  periodical 
inspection,  and  the  tightening  up  of  all  parts  likely  to  be- 
come loose,  from  the  very  first  time  the  car  is  used  on  the 
road.  If  a  car  has  been  habitually  neglected  in  this  respect, 
it  becomes  almost  impossible  to  remedy  this  general  noisi- 
ness, and  many  cars  which  should  run  practically  silently 
for  years  will  if  badly  attended  to  become  in  a  few  months* 
time,  veritable  rattle  boxes.  A  distinct  knock  will  be  set  up 
if  heavy  parts  such  as  the  gear  box  or  crank  case  become 
loose  on  their  bearers  through  the  slacking  back  of  the  nuts. 
We  have  known  this  happen  in  the  case  of  a  gear  box 
through  one  nut  slackening  back  and  causing  a  knock  which 
was  very  difficult  to  locate.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
insure  that  all  parts  are  properly  tightened  up. 

NUTS  AND  BOLTS. 

Symptoms:  Parts  become  loose,  rattle,  or  even  shake  off  altogether. 
— Difficulty  in  removing  nuts  or  bolts. 

Causes:  Improperly  tightening. — Neglect  to  use  lock  nuts  or  split 
pins. — Neglect  to  grease  or  otherwise  lubricate  nut  or  bolt  before 
assembling. 

These  require  careful  attention.     In  a  motor  car  the  vibra- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  ill 

tion  is  so  considerable  that  a  nut,  even  though  secured  by  a 
lock  nut,  is  not  sufficient.  It  should  be  secured  in  addition 
by  means  of  a  split  pin,  and  occasional  examination  should 
be  made  to  see  that  the  pins  are  in  place.  We  have  seen 
serious  damage  caused  through  neglect  in  this  direction.  If 
there  is  more  than  one  bolt  holding  two  portions  together, 
each  should  be  screwed  up  equally,  a  little  at  a  time,  and 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  with  a  long  heavy  spanner 
immense  leverage  can  be  applied,  and  consequently  nuts  and 
bolts  should  not  be  over-tightened.  One  should  seek  to 
strike  the  happy  mean.  It  will  be  found  that  a  nut  or  a  bolt 
can  be  tightened  up  much  more  effectually  if  the  head  of 
the  bolt  is  given  a  sharp  short  blow,  with  a  hammer  while 
pressure  is  being  exerted  on  the  spanner  gripping  the  nut. 

Spare  nuts  and  bolts  should  always  be  carried  as  part  of 
the  kit,  in  case  of  loss  or  breakage. 

Sometimes  an  over-tightened  nut,  bolt,  or  spark  plug  is 
very  difficult  to  remove,  especially  if  it  has  become  rusted 
into  position.  The  use  of  undue  force  may  cause  serious 
damage.  If  the  nut  or  bolt  will  not  yield  to  ordinary  pres- 
sure, treat  plentifully  with  kerosene,  leaving  ample  time  for 
it  to  penetrate  to  the  seat  of  the  trouble.  If  this  is  not  suc- 
cessful, try  the  effect  of  heat.  If  the  refractory  member  is 
in  contact  with  the  cylinder  or  combustion  head,  run  the  en- 
gine for  a  few  minutes.  In  other  cases  a  blow-lamp  may  be 
used  judiciously.  If  no  blow-lamp  is  available,  a  little  cot- 
ton wool  or  waste  wrapped  loosely  around  the  joint,  soaked 
with  gasolene,  and  lighted,  will  raise  the  temperature  suf- 
ficiently to  ease  the  joint. 

Prevention  in  all  these  cases  is  better  than  cure.  A  paste 
of  graphite  and  gasolene  mixed,  applied  to  the  screw  does 
not. affect  the  bite  of  the  screw,  and  at  the  same  time  it  pre- 
vents undue  adhesion. 

When  commencing  to  screw  a  nut,  if  it  is  not  started  true 
on  the  end  of  the  bolt  it  is  likely  to  get  on  the  skew,  or 
otherwise  cross-threaded.  For  this  reason  the  nut  should 
first  be  applied  with  the  ringers.  If  there  is  considerable  re- 


ii2  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

sistance,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  nut  has  not  been  placed 
on  true,  and,  if  forced,  the  threads  of  either  nut  or  screw  will 
be  stripped.  Sometimes  the  first  thread  of  a  bolt  gets  burred 
through  being  struck  on  the  top  with  a  metal  instrument, 
instead  of  placing  a  block  of  wood  between,  or  for  some  other 
reason.  Before  applying  the  nut  the  burr  must  be  filed  off 
and  the  thread  groove  carefully  cleaned  with  the  edge  of  a 
half-round  or  three-square  file.  If  the  nut  is  unduly  forced 
against  the  shoulder  end  of  the  thread,  the  bolt  may  be 
twisted  off. 

It  is  essential  that  the  spanner  should  be  used  with  discre- 
tion. If  it  is  of  the  adjustable  variety,  the  operator  should 
be  careful  to  adjust  the  jaws  so  as  to  grip  closely,  and  also 
to  push  them  right  home  on  the  nut  or  bolt ;  otherwise  the 
edges  of  the  hexagon  head  of  the  nut  or  bolt  will  certainly  be 
damaged  through  the  spanner  slipping.  It  is  a  great  mistake 
to  over-tighten  nuts  or  bolts ;  it  very  often  results  in  a  thread 
being  stripped,  and  sometimes  great  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  removing  the  nut  or  bolt  after  it  has  remained  in  position 
for  any  considerable  period. 

OVERHEATING. 

Symptoms:  Smell  of  burning. — Slight  smoke. — Knock. — Engine 
gradually  slows  and  finally  stops. — Sometimes  engine  will  fire  after 
current  is  switched  off. — Piston  seizes  (rarely). — Water  steams. 

Causes:  Defect  in  water  circulation. — Choked  or  ineffective  radiator. 
— Choked  water  pipes. — Pump  out  of  order. — Escape  of  water. — Air 
lock. — Continuous  hill  climbing  at  a  slow  pace  with  a  tail  wind. — 
Insufficient  lubrication. — Unsuitable  oil. — Running  engine  too  fast. — 
Escape  of  compression  into  base  chamber  through  defective  piston 
rings  or  worn  cylinders. — Faulty  carburation. — Running  continuously 
with  one  cylinder  misfiring. — Ignition  retarded  too  much. — Insufficient 
lift  of  exhaust  valve. — Slipping  clutch. 

Most  of  the  causes  are  fully  dealt  with  under  other  head- 
ings herein,  such  as  Water  Circulation,  Lubrication,  Com- 
pression, Carburation,  and  Timing.  A  fruitful  cause  of  over- 
heating is  running  with  the  ignition  retarded  and  the  throttle 
fully  open.  Racing  the  engine  will  have  the  same  effect,  or 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  113 

allowing  it  to  labor  on  hills  (see  Driving),  or  using  too  rich 
a  mixture.  Faulty  valve  timing  may  also  cause  trouble,  espe- 
cially if  the  exhaust  valve  has  an  insufficient  lift  due  to  the 
distance  between  the  tappet  rod  and  the  valve  stem  being  too 
great.  This  has  the  effect  of  causing  the  valve  to  open  too  late 
and  close  too  early,  thus  putting  a  back  pressure  on  the  engine, 
and  retaining  some  of  the  burnt  charge  in  the  combustion 
chamber.  An  escape  of  compression  into  the  base  chamber 
can  be  diagnosed  by  feeling  the  base  chamber,  which,  under 
such  circumstances,  will  become  unduly  hot.  If  the  clutch 
is  slipping,  the  engine  will  run  fast,  while  the  car  will  travel 
slowly.  To  diagnose  this  trouble  see  if  the  clutch  is  hot.  A 
little  litharge  will  often  fix  a  leather  clutch.  If  the  fan  belt 
slips,  overheating  may  result.  In  most  modern  cars  there 
is  adequate  adjustment  provided  for  the  fan  belt.  Where  a 
twisted  raw  hide  belt  is  fitted,  its  tension  may  be  increased 
by  undoing  the  coupling  or  hook  and  twisting  the  belt  up 
again  for  a  few  turns. 

In  case  of  serious  overheating  the  engine  should  prefer- 
ably be  stopped  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  radiator  may,  how- 
ever, be  replenished  with  cold  water,  provided  it  is  filled  in 
very  gradually,  with  the  engine  running  slowly  meantime. 

To  remedy  a  seized  piston  due  to  excessive  overheating 
kerosene  is  as  good  as  anything  short  of  a  new  piston. 

Overheating  may  be  due  to  wrong  carburation  giving  too 
rich  a  mixture,  to  ignition  that  is  timed  to  occur  too  late,  or 
to  failure  of  the  water  circulation  due  to  leakage,  pump  de- 
rangements, or  air  locks,  all  of  which  are  simple  to  discover 
and  usually  not  difficult  to  correct,  even  for  the  novice. 

Very  often  overheating  is  caused  by  failing  to  change  down 
early  enough  on  an  ascent,  resulting  in  the  engine  laboring. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  cooling  is  inefficient  because 
both  pump  and  fan  are  working  at  a  slow  speed,  while  the 
volume  of  mixture  is  at  its  maximum.  By  changing  down  and 
running  the  engine  something  over  the  normal,  the  throttle 
need  not  be  fully  open,  and  both  pump  and  fan  will  be  running 
fast.  This  will  prevent  overheating. 


114  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

In  the  case  of  cars  using  a  fan  on  the  periphery  of  the 
engine  flywheel,  or  in  which  the  arms  of  the  flywheel  form 
the  vanes  of  a  fan,  it  is  essential  that  the  whole  of  the  space 
forward  of  the  engine  and  surrounding  it  should  be  inclosed 
by  a  practically  air-tight  bonnet  and  under  apron.  If  any  of 
the  apertures  used  for  getting  at  parts  of  the  engine  are  left 
open,  the  air-drawing  effect  of  the  flywheel  fan  will  be  nul- 
lified, and  on  hills,  where  the  car  is  traveling  slowly  and  the 
engine  rotating  at  great  speed,  overheating  is  likely  to  ensue, 
especially  if  there  is  a  tail  wind  blowing. 

PISTON  TROUBLES. 

Symptoms:  Loss  of  compression. — Gradual  weakening  of  engine. 
— Knock. — Seizing  of  piston. — Preignition  from  carbon  deposit. 

Causes:  Rings  stuck  with  gummy  deposit. — Rings  worn  or  broken. 
— Slots  coinciding  with  each  other. — Rings  bad  fit. — Defective  or  ex- 
cessive lubrication. — Overheating. 

In  a  modern  car  little  trouble  will  be  experienced  with  the 
piston,  which  is  made  a  proper  fit  to  the  cylinder.  The  wear- 
ing oval  of  the  cylinder  is  a  bogey  which  has  been  by  this  time 
sufficiently  dispelled.  It  is  only  after  use  for  many  years  that  a 
cylinder  properly  designed,  and  of  the  right  material,  will  wear 
oval.  The  greatest  trouble  which  may  be  experienced  from 
the  piston  is  loss  of  compression  due  to  the  gases  passing  be- 
tween the  outside  surface  of  the  piston  and  the  walls' of  the 
cylinder  into  the  crank  chamber.  This  is  due  in  practically 
every  case  to  defects  in  the  piston  rings,  and  loss  in  this  direc- 
tion will  be  indicated  by  brown  surfaces  on  the  faces  of  the 
piston  rings.  Sometimes  the  piston  rings  gradually  work 
round  so  that  the  slots  in  them  will  coincide,  or  nearly  coin- 
cide with  each  other.  In  such  cases  considerable  loss  of  power 
will  result.  This  is  not  due  to  the  piston  being  a  bad  fit,  but 
solely  to  the  aperture  which  is  thus  made  for  the  gases  to  flow 
by  the  piston.  On  taking  off  a  cylinder  to  examine  the  piston 
it  is  advisable  not  to  turn  it  in  the  slightest  degree,  so  that 
when  it  is  lifted  off  the  piston  the  position  of  the  slots  in  the 
piston  rings  can  be  determined.  The  slots  should  be  equi- 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  115 

distant  from  each  other,  so  that  if  there  are  three  rings  they 
should  be  at  one-third  of  a  circle  away  from  each  other,  and  if 
there  are  four  rings  the  slots  should  be  at  a  quarter  of  a  circle 
away  from  each  other. 

In  the  case  of  pistons  fitted  with  three  rings  it  is  usual  to 
place  the  slot  in  the  middle  ring  at  the  contrary  angle  to  the 
slots  in  the  top  and  bottom  rings.  In  modern  practice  the 
rings  are  pegged  so  that  they  cannot  rotate. 

Leakage  of  compression  past  the  piston  also  includes  leak- 
age of  the  expanded  gas  charge  and  therefore  heating  up  of 
the  base  chamber.  If  the  base  chamber  becomes  unduly  hot 
and  it  is  ascertained  that  the  lubrication  is  in  perfect  order,  it 
may  be  taken  for  granted  that  there  is  loss  of  compression 
past  the  piston  and  the  rings  may  require  renewing.  Failure 
to  make  a  proper  joint  between  the  piston  and  the  walls  of  the 
cylinder  may  be  due  to  the  use  of  an  inferior  and  improper  oil 
which  gums  and  prevents  the  piston  rings  expanding  properly 
in  the  slots  in  the  piston.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  take  out 
the  piston,  take  off  the  rings,  and  thoroughly  clean  and  scrape 
the  slots  in  which  the  piston  rings  move,  both  at  their  sides 
and  at  the  bottom.  A  slight  slackness  up  and  down  of  the 
piston  ring  in  its  slot  is  of  no  great  consequence  so  long  as  the 
surfaces  are  clean.  When  a  ring  is  broken  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  it  should  be  replaced  with  a  new  ring. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  wearing  faces  of  the  rings  will 
determine  if  they  are  holding  correctly  against  compression 
and  expansion.  If  there  is  any  leakage,  it  will  be  shown,  and 
its  place  indicated,  as  already  mentioned,  by  brown  places  on 
the  rings.  This  may  mean  that  the  rings  have  become  weak 
and  that  new  ones  are  needed.  If  the  surfaces  of  all  the  rings 
are  quite  bright  and  polished,  with  no  brown  or  discolored 
places,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  they  are  in  good 
order,  and  quite  tight ;  and  all  the  attention  required  will  be  a 
good  cleaning  and  scraping  of  all  carbon  deposit  away  from 
the  rings  and  the  grooves. 

No  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  taking  the  piston  with 
its  rings  out  of  the  cylinder,  but  considerable  difficulty  may 


n6  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

be  experienced  in  getting  the  piston  with  the  rings  in  proper 
position  back  into  the  cylinder. 

Generally  there  is  a  wide  taper  on  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder 
which  automatically  closes  the  rings  in  their  grooves  as  the 
piston  is  pushed  up. 

When  fitting  new  piston  rings  it  is  necessary  first  to  see 
that  they  fit  properly  in  the  grooves  in  the  piston.  There 
should  be  just  the  slightest  amount  of  shake  sideways.  It 
should  also  be  ascertained  that  they  will  fit  up  inside  the 
cylinder  when  compressed.  For  this  purpose  it  is  best  to  try 
to  fit  them  first  inside  the  cylinder.  If  they  are  too  long  cir- 
cumferentially,  it  will  be  necessary  to  file  their  ends  slightly, 
so  that  when  in  the  bore  of  the  cylinder  they  will  come  to- 
gether fairly  and  squarely.  This  having  been  determined, 
they  can  next  be  fitted  to  the  piston.  If  they  are  so  wide  that 
they  fit  tightly  in  the  grooves  in  the  piston  they  will  have  to 
be  reduced  in  width,  which  can  be  done  by  rubbing  them  on  a 
flat  board  upon  which  a  piece  of  emery  cloth  has  been  tacked. 
They  should  first  be  tried  all  round  in  the  groove  of  the  piston. 

In  fitting  them  on  the  piston,  it  is  advisable  to  use  slips  of 
very  thin  metal,  such  as  tin  or  zinc,  to  prevent  the  rings  in- 
tended for  the  lower  slots  slipping  into  the  upper  ones.  Three 
strips  will  be  sufficient,  and  the  rings  should  be  sprung  over 
them  and  pushed  down,  the  first  ring  into  the  bottom  slot,  the 
second  ring  into  the  middle  slot,  while  the  last  ring  can  be 
fitted  in  the  top  slot  without  the  aid  of  the  strips.  There  is 
no  difficulty  about  this  operation,  but  it  requires  just  ordinary 
care  not  to  expand  the  piston  rings  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  snap,  for  being  made  of  fine  cast  iron,  they  are  naturally 
very  brittle  and  cannot  be  expected  to  expand  more  than 
sufficiently  to  put  them  over  the  piston  and  into  their  grooves. 

Sometimes  piston  rings  break.  This  is  generally  due  to 
lack  of  lubrication  and  the  seizing  or  partial  seizing  of  the 
piston  in  the  cylinder.  In  such  cases  they  will  require  re- 
newal, and  it  is  then  advisable  to  put  the  best  of  the  already 
worn  piston  rings  in  the  top  groove,  as  a  new  piston  ring  is 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  117 

not  absolutely  gastight  until  it  has  been  running  for  some 
considerable  distance. 

In  addition  to  the  repairs  or  adjustments  which  may  be 
necessary  to  the  rings  there  is  the  important  question  of  the 
piston  pin  and  its  bearing.  If  the  piston  pin  becomes  loose  in 
the  bosses  of  the  piston  it  may  work  out  endways,  and,  being 
hardened,  it  may  score  the  sides  of  the  walls  and  even  mill 
grooves  in  the  sides  sufficient  to  considerably  reduce  the  power 
of  the  engine  through  loss  of  compression. 

Knock  in  the  piston  may  also  be  set  up  by  the  piston  pin 
becoming  loose,  and,  similarly,  knock  may  be  set  up  by  the 
bearing  in  the  little  end  of  the  connecting  rod  becoming  too 
large  for  the  piston  pin. 

There  are  generally  screwed  pins,  sometimes  tapered,  which 
hold  the  piston  pin  in  position.  It  is  essential  to  see  that  these 
are  screwed  up  tight  and  that  they  are  locked  by  means  of  a 
split  ring  or  a  split  pin  or  any  other  locking  device  which  will 
prevent  them  rotating.  If  through  faulty  lubrication  or  neg- 
lect of  lubrication  or  failure  in  the  circulating  system  the 
piston  should  seize  in  the  cylinder,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
inject  kerosene  and  to  oscillate  the  crank  shaft  so  as  to  grad- 
ually release  the  piston,  after  which  a  thorough  cleansing  will 
suffice  to  set  things  right,  if  no  serious  scoring  has  developed 
through  piston  ring  breakage  or  otherwise. 

The  head  of  the  piston  will  periodically  require  cleaning 
due  to  carbon  deposits.  This  trouble  will  be  accentuated  if 
the  engine  is  badly  treated,  as  through  over-lubrication  and 
overheating,  or  from  running  with  too  rich  mixture  or  re- 
tarded ignition.  In  some  modern  motor  cars,  the  center  of  the 
piston  does  not  coincide  with  the  center  of  the  crank  pin.  Al- 
so sometimes  the  center  line  of  the  connecting  rod  is  nearer 
one  side  or  the  other  of  the  little  end  bearing  and  nearer  one 
side  or  the  other  of  the  crank  pin  bearing.  It  becomes  neces- 
sary, therefore,  to  determine  before  replacing  the  piston  that 
the  right  side  is  to  the  fore  or  back  of  the  engine  as  the  case 
may  be,  otherwise  the  big  end  of  the  connecting  rod  when 


ii8  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

being  fitted  to  the  crank  pin  will  not  coincide  with  it.  Ic  is 
well  in  such  cases  before  taking  the  piston  out  of  the  cylinder 
to  make  a  notch  with  a  file  on  the  edge  or  mouth  of  the  piston 
and  on  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder. 

POWER,  LOSS  OF. 

Symptoms:     Sluggish   running. 

Causes:  Ignition. — Short  circuits. — Battery  exhausted. — Coil  de- 
fective.— Timing  wrong. — Sparking  plug  defective. — Ends  of  plug  wires 
too  far  apart. — Contact-maker  disk  grooved  or  worn. — Contact  blades 
worn,  bent,  or  not  making  proper  contact. — Fiber  disk  worn. 

Carburation. — Dirt  or  water  in  carbureter. — Float  punctured. — Float 
too  light,  or  lop-sided. — Supply  pipe  choked  or  of  insufficient  bore. — 
Jet  choked,  frozen,  or  of  insufficient  bore. — Filters  choked — Stale 
gasolene. — Valve  spindle  bent  or  worn. — Leak  of  pressure;  pressure 
valve  not  set  properly,  or  sticking  (in  the  case  of  pressure  feed). — 
Vacuum  in  supply  tank  through  closing  of  air  inlet  (in  case  of  gravity 
feed). 

Valves. — Dirty  or  pitted. — Springs  too  weak. — Timing  wrong. — 
Valve  stem  bent. — Valve  stem  too  long  or  too  short. — Dirt  under 
seating. 

Bad  Circulation. — Air  lock. — Steam  bound. — Pump  out  of  order. 

Bad  Compression. — Excessive  lubrication. — Want  of  lubrication. — 
Overheating. — Piston  rings. — Clutch  slipping. — Muffler  choked 
through  over-lubrication. 

When  the  symptoms  are  clearly  defined  it  is,  as  a  rule,  easy 
to  diagnose  a  trouble,  but  when  the  car  simply  loses  power  and 
begins  to  run  sluggishly  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  locate  the 
cause.  Anything  which  interferes  with  the  efficiency  of  the 
engine  or  transmission  system  may  cause  the  engine  to  lose 
power  or  the  car  to  run  badly.  If  there  is  a  sudden  loss  of 
power,  accompanied  by  a  smell  and  a  tendency  to  knock,  the 
trouble  may  be  due  to  overheating.  See  Overheating,  Piston 
Troubles,  etc.,  in  preceding  pages. 

Short  circuit  or  other  ignition  failures  are  a  fruitful  source 
of  feeble  running,  which  also  may  be  due  to  unduly  rich  or 
lean  mixture. 

If   it    is   the   timing   that   is    at   fault,    uneven,    jerky   and 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  119 

harsh  running  will  accompany  the  loss  of  power.  Wear  in 
the  valve  mechanism,  springs,  etc.,  is  dealt  with  under  Valves. 
Perhaps  the  most  insidious  cause  is  a  choked  muffler,  causing 
back  pressure.  (See  Muffler.)  The  various  symptoms  and 
causes  are  given  very  fully  in  Table  I.,  and  are  fully  described 
under  separate  headings  in  Repairs  and  Adjustments. 

PRESSURE,  LOSS  OF. 

Symptoms:     Failure  in   feed. 

Causes:    Failure  in  valve. — Filling  cap  loose. — Leakage  in  pipes. 

The  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  surface  of  the  gasolene  and 
oil  by  the  exhaust  gas  of  the  engine.  In  order  to  regulate 
this  pressure,  a  double  mushroom-headed  valve,  in  the  nature 
of  a  back  pressure  and  safety  valve  combined,  is  fitted  close  to 
the  exhaust  pipe,  where  the  supply  is  being  taken  from.  Any 
leakage  will  prevent  sufficient  pressure  being  maintained,  and 
may  arise  from — 

Filling  cap  of  gasolene  tank  being  loose,  or  leather  washer 
defective. 

Filling  cap  of  oil  tank  being  loose  or  washer  defective. 

Leaking  conducting  pipes  or  couplings. 

Dirt  under  either  of  the  valve  heads  will  also  affect  the 
pressure.  A  little  kerosene  or  gasolene  should  be  dropped 
into  the  valve,  and  the  bottom  of  the  nut  should  be  turned  with 
the  fingers  to  allow  the  liquid  to  reach  the  valve  seating,  and 
so  grind  out  any  dirt  which  may  rest  between  the  valve  and 
its  seating. 

Sometimes  the  valve  heads  require  grinding  to  make  a  good 
joint  with  their  seatings,  or  the  springs  holding  the  valves  in 
position  may  be  defective  and  require  renewing,  or  the  valve 
may  be  wrongly  set.  The  operator  should  experiment  with 
the  valve  until  the  gauge  shows  a  pressure  of  from  two  to  four 
pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to  the  make  of  the  car. 

When  filling  the  gasolene  tank  see  that  the  pressure  cock  is 
open.  Always  let  off  the  pressure  after  stopping  the  engine. 
In  case  of  a  "flare  up"  the  pressure  cock  must  be  opened  at 


120  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

all  cost,  or  the  gasolene  will  continue  to  feed  the  flames.  The 
same  careful  attention  should  be  given  in  the  case  of  pressure 
fed  lubrication,  especially  to  the  relief  valve.  (See  Leaks.)  . 

RUSTING  UP  OF  JOINTS  OR  MOVING  PARTS. 

Symptoms:  Binding  of  working  parts. — Flaking  off  of  paint, 
enamel,  or  plating. 

Causes:  Exposure  to  wet  or  atmosphere. — Neglect  of  lubrication 
and  proper  cleaning. 

Ordinary  rust,  if  not  permitted  to  penetrate  deeply,  may  be 
readily  removed  by  brushing  the  parts  with  kerosene,  in  which 
a  little  lime  has  been  slaked.  When  the  surface  has  been 
cleaned  the  joints  or  knuckles  should  be  well  oiled.  These  in- 
structions particularly  concern  such  movements  as  the  brake 
rods,  the  leaves  of  the  springs,  and  any  rod  having  as  a  means 
of  adjustment  a  screw  and  a  nut.  If  by  chance  any  such  should 
become  "set,"  that  is,  impossible  to  disturb  without  risk  of 
straining  or  breakage,  a  blow-lamp — which  will  be  found  a 
useful  adjunct  to  the  repair  outfit — may  be  used  to  heat  the 
part.  The  application  of  a  little  kerosene  will  then  suffice  to 
clean  the  scale,  and  the  nut  may  be  readily  slacked  back. 

Unless  kept  dry  and  oiled,  rust  will  penetrate  through  the 
paint  or  enamel  or  plating  of  the  metal  parts  of  the  car.  The 
remedy  is  to  brighten  with  emery  cloth  and  re-paint. 

SPRINGS. 

Symptoms:  Broken  leaf. — Car  becomes  lop-sided. — Creak  or  squeak 
in  spring. 

Causes:  Sudden  shock. — Rough  roads. — Overloading. — Want  of 
lubrication. 

A  fracture  of  the  springs  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence, 
and  is  generally  due  to  fast  traveling  over  rough  roads,  jump- 
ing culverts,  or  overloading  the  car. 

Roadside  temporary  repairs  to  springs  may  be  made  as 
follows:  The  tourist  should  carry  with  him  a  short  length 
of  spring  leaf,  with  suitable  clamps  to  secure  it  in  position 
should  a  breakage  occur.  Failing  this,  however,  there  are 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  121 

other  methods  of  making  a  temporary  repair,  sufficiently  sub- 
stantial to  enable  the  car  to  continue  its  journey. 

The  following  is  a  very  interesting  example  illustrated  in 
Fig.  I.  The  main  leaf  A  of  one  of  the  front  springs  broke 
at  E,  about  six  inches  from  the  hanger.  This  left  only  the 
under  leaf  F,  which  was  very  thin,  connected  to  the  hanger. 
The  shock  of  the  sudden  breakage  caused  this  under  leaf  to 
bend  close  up  to  the  hanger  at  a  comparatively  sharp  angle, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  short  length  of  the  upper  leaf  stuck  up- 
wards at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  problem  was,  first,  to 
get  them  together  again,  and,  secondly,  the  best  way  to  clamp 
them  so  as  to  insure  that  the  spring  would  not  break  away 
altogether  from  the  hanger. 


FIG.  f.-AN  EFFECTIVE  BUT 
MAKESHIFT  REPAIR. 


The  car  was  first  jacked  up  by  the  end  of  the  hanger.  This 
relieved  the  strain  on  the  under  leaf  F,  but  made  little  altera- 
tion in  the  position  of  the  broken  length  of  the  top  leaf.  With 
the  object  of  forcing  the  latter  downward,  so  that  the  broken 
edges  would  come  together,  the  jaws  of  a  small,  but  strong, 
spanner  C  were  opened  to  a  width  of  about  half  an  inch, 
slipped  over  both  leaves,  just  outside  the  junction  with  the 
hanger,  and  then,  with  the  aid  of  a  cold  chisel  and  hammer, 
forced  back  along  the  leaves,  by  which  means  the  two  edges 
were  almost  brought  together.  From  a  neighboring  cottage  a 
block  of  wood  B  about  eighteen  inches  long  was  procured. 
Having  shaped  it  to  fit  snugly  into  the  angle  of  the  hanger, 
the  next  difficulty  was  to  cut  a  receptacle  for  the  head  of  the 


122  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

spanner,  so  that  the  block  might  rest  dead  true  on  top  of  the 
broken  leaf.  This  had  to  be  laboriously  effected  with  a  small 
pen-knife.  No  copper  wire  was  available,  but  the  driver  pro- 
cured some  iron  wire  from  the  cottage,  and  also  a  short  length 
of  rope.  The  wire  was  first  laboriously  wound  taut  round  the 
block  of  wood  and  spring,  and  then  the  length  of  rope  D  was 
added,  the  end  being  made  fast  to  the  end  of  the  spring  hanger. 
Water  was  then  poured  on  the  rope,  which  contracted  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  broken  leaf,  the  bent  leaf  beneath  it,  and 
the  block  were  pressed  together  until  the  edges  of  the  fracture 
came  true  and  square,  and  the  spanner,  which  had  previously 
been  immovably  fixed  where  it  was  wedged,  dropped  off  on 
to  the  ground.  This  repair  proved  absolutely  effectual,  not- 
withstanding the  very  crude  and  inefficient  material  which 
was  available. 

The  breakage  of  a  top  leaf  of  a  spring  is  very  unusual,  and, 
needless  to  say,  is  the  most  difficult  to  deal  with.  It  is  gener- 
ally one  of  the  other  leaves  which  collapses,  and  here  the  op- 
eration is  much  simpler. 

In  the  accompanying  sketches  are  shown  alternative 
methods  of  making  temporary  spring  repairs  on  the  road.  Fig. 
I  shows  the  temporary  repair  just  described. 


FIG.  2.-THE  BEST  METHOD. 

When  motoring  in  a  district  where  the  roads  are  very 
humpy,  and  especially  where  culverts  have  to  be  negotiated, 
it  is  well  to  be  forearmed  against  spring  breakages.  In 
Fig.  2  is  shown  a  very  good  spring  repair  job  effected  with 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  123 

a  few  spare  parts,  which  can  be  easily  carried  in  the  tool  kit. 
These  consist  of  a  couple  of  spring  straps  with  nuts,  as  shown 
at  C  in  Fig.  3,  and  a  couple  of  plates  as  at  D,  with  two  holes 
in  them  to  correspond  with  the  screwed  ends,  of  the  straps  C. 
In  addition,  there  should  be  provided  two  wooden  blocks  of 
the  width  of  the  springs,  and  an  odd  length  of  stiff  sprii.g 
plate  about  a  foot  or  fifteen  inches  long.  These  straps  and 
plates  can  be  had  from  any  hardware  dealer  for  a  trifle,  and 
should  be  wide  enough  to  take  the  widest  spring  on  the  car. 
The  repair  is  effected  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  break  is 


FIG.  3.— STRAPS  WITH  NUT  AND  PLATE. 

supposed  to  be  in  the  top  plate  as  at  G,  and  the  odd  length  of 
spring  plate  forming  the  splint  is  shown  at  B.  The  straps  C, 
C,  with  their  plates  D,  D,  are  firmly  bolted  up  with  the 
wooden  packing  blocks  F,  F,  in  position  as  shown.  The  beauty 
of  this  method  of  bolting  up  a  spring  is  that  it  insures  the 
spring  plate  and  leaves  being  drawn  down  into  their  proper  and 
normal  positions,  and  a  good  repair  is  effected  which  will  allow 
of  the  car  being  used  for  a  considerable  time  until  a  replace- 
ment can  be  obtained. 

Where  a  motorist  has  not  provided  himself  with  the  straps 
shown,  a  really  good  repair  can  be  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
Here  four  short  lengths  of  iron  bar  A,  A,  A,  A,  about  one 
inch  wide  by  a  quarter  inch  thick,  are  drilled  with  a  hole  near 
each  end,  and  four  bolts  and  nuts  D,  D,  D,  D,  clamp  them 
tight — two  on  the  top  of  and  two  underneath  the  spring1.  A 


124  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

plate  of  iron  B  is  used  as  a  splint  on  the  top  of  the  spring 
plate,  and  wooden  blocks  C,  C  are  arranged  underneath.  The 
materials  to  make  such  a  repair  can  be  readily  obtained  at 
any  country  blacksmith's  or  hardware  store. 


FIG.  4 — ANOTHER  SYSTEM. 

As  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  wear  between  the 
laminated  plates  of  springs,  they  should  be  kept  well  lubri- 
cated between  the  laminations,  a  good  graphite  grease  being 
the  best  of  this  purpose. 

STARTING  TROUBLES. 

Symptoms:  Engine  refuses  to  start  when  switched  on  and  starting 
handle  turned. 

Causes:  Ignition  faulty. — Carbureter  frozen. — Loss  or  breakage  of 
starting  gear. 

Starting  troubles  are  frequently  due  to  the  ignition.  The 
batteries  may  be  run  down  or  the  spark  plugs  may  be  foul,  due 
to  the  engine  having  been  stopped  by  switching  off  the 
ignition,  and  oil  having  thus  remained  on  the  sparking  points. 
It  would  be  wise,  therefore,  always  to  stop  by  throttling  off 
rather  than  by  switching  off. 

In  coil  and  battery  ignition,  the  trembler  in  the  coil  may 
be  at  fault,  and  we  have  known  a  refractory  engine  started  by 
the  help  of  a  friend  who  kept  tapping  the  trembler  blades  with 
a  pencil  while  the  starting  handle  was  being  turned.  This,  of 
course,  indicates  that  the  tremblers  require  readjusting,  which 
should  at  once  be  carried  out,  as  described  under  Ignition,  in 
the  preceding  pages. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  engine  can  be  turned  by  hand 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  125 

is  an  important  factor  as  regards  the  ease  of  starting,  and 
to  get  the  best  results  in  this  respect,  the  motorist  should 
squirt  about  a  teaspoonful  of  kerosene  through  each  com- 
pression cock  at  the  conclusion  of  the  day's  work  while  the 
engine  is  still  hot,  and  should  then  give  the  starting  handle 
a  few  turns.  This  will  clean  the  piston  rings  and  the  cylinder, 
and  thus  prevent  the  oil  clogging,  and  so  making  it  difficult  to 
turn  the  starting  handle  when  the  car  is  to  be  restarted. 

Needless  to  say,  the  carbureter  should  be  flooded  before 
starting,  and  only  by  experience  will  one  learn  to  what  ex- 
tent this  should  be  carried  out.  In  the  case  of  some  en- 
gines, excessive  flooding  renders  starting  difficult.  If  after 
flooding  the  engine  is  still  refractory,  gasolene  should  be  in- 
jected from  the  outside  to  insure  an  initial  explosion.  The 
usual  system  is  to  squirt  it  through  the  compression  cocks. 
This  is  not  always  effective,  however,  and  where  an  extra 
air  inlet  is  fitted  between  the  carbureter  proper  and  the 
inlet  valves,  it  would  be  better  to  squirt  the  gasolene  in  here, 
pushing  down  the  slide  valve  where  such  is  used,  so  as  to 
insure  the  spirit  reaching  the  inlet  pipe.  Where  no  com- 
pression cocks  are  fitted,  or  where  the  extra  air  inlet  is  not 
conveniently  situated,  a  small  hole  should  be  drilled  in  the 
inlet  pipe  close  to  its  union  with  the  cylinder,  and  this  should 
normally  be  kept  closed  by  means  of  a  spring  oil  hole  cover, 
such  as  is  used  in  cycle  pedals,  or  by  a  small  thumbscrew.  The 
vapor  from  gasolene  which  has  been  squirted  in  here  will  at 
once  enter  the  inlet  ports  when  the  engine  is  turned  by  hand, 
and  so  provide  a  good  explosive  mixture. 

Small  spring  oil  cans  for  gasolene  and  for  kerosene  should 
be  fixed  inside  the  dashboard  by  means  of  neat  clips,  so  as 
to  be  always  available.  If  trouble  is  still  experienced,  the 
extra  air  inlet  should  be  temporarily  closed.  A  pocket  hand- 
kerchief or  other  cloth  held  over  it  will  do  the  needful. 

In  most  cars  there  is  a  special  position  for  both  the  igni- 
tion lever  and  the  carburation  lever  which  is  best  for  easy 
starting,  and  this  will  be  found  by  experience.  It  is  some- 
times advisable,  also,  to  slightly  depress  the  accelerator  pedal 


126  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

while  actuating  the  starting  handle.     If  a  helper  is  not  avail- 
able to  hold  it  down,  a  stone  or  other  weight  will  suffice. 

If  stoppage  of  the  engine  occurs  when  ascending  a  hill,  put 
in  the  reverse  gear,  allow  the  car  to  run  backward,  and 
gently  let  in  the  clutch,  the  throttle  being  open,  and  the  igni- 
tion switch  turned  on.  On  the  engine  starting,  the  clutch 
should  be  taken  out  and  the  brakes  put  on  to  bring  the  car 
to  a  standstill,  when  the  ascent  can  be  continued.  When 
adopting  this  method  one  should  be  careful  not  to  let  the 
car  run  backward  too  fast,  and  also  to  see  that  the  brakes  are 
in  sound  working  order,  and  efficient  backward  as  well  as 
forward.  The  ignition  should  be  nearly  fully  retarded. 

Four  and  six  cylindered  motors  can  often  be  easily  started 
by  giving  a  few  quick  turns  to  the  engine  with  the  ignition 
switched  off  and  the  throttle  fully  open.  This  will  charge 
the  cylinders.  Then  operate  the  switch  quickly,  and  the 
engine  will  generally  start.  This  can  only  be  done  when  a 
trembler  coil  is  used,  and  the  compression  and  valves  are  in 
good  order.  It  is  impossible  in  the  case  of  an  engine  fitted 
with  low  tension  magneto,  while  there  are  only  one  or  two 
cases  of  high-tension  magneto  where  it  is  effective. 

Starting  in  winter  time  is  often  difficult  owing  to  the  cold, 
which  may  sometimes  cause  the  formation  of  ice  in  the 
carbureter  due  to  the  rapid  evaporation.  In  such  cases  heating 
of  the  carbureter  by  means  of  a  hot  iron  held  against  it 
or  by  bandages  of  flannel  or  cleaning  cloths  around  it  kept 
hot  with  boiling  water,  may  enable  the  car  to  be  started  easily. 

To  start  a  motor  when  the  starting  mechanism  is  broken 
or  the  starting  handle  lost,  put  the  second  or  third  speed 
gear  into  operation,  and  with  the  clutch  out,  allow  the  car 
to  run  downhill  until  it  has  attained  a  pace  of  9  or  10  miles 
an  hour,  arid  then  let  the  clutch  in  gradually.  Or  if  no 
hill  is  available,  jack  up  one  wheel  of  the  car,  block  the 
other  wheels  with  stones,  etc.,  put  in  the  top  speed,  and  start 
the  engine  by  pulling  round  the  free  wheel.  When  the 
engine  is  started,  put  the  gear  in  the  neutral  position,  let  down 
the  wheel  when  it  has  stopped  rotating,  and  proceed. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  127 

If  two  or  three  helpers  are  available,  the  engine  can  be 
started  by  pushing  the  car,  and,  while  it  is  in  motion,  letting 
the  clutch  in  gradually. 

Self-starters  using  compressed  air,  compressed  by  the  motor 
and  stored  in  a  cylinder,  and  others  using  a  high  powered 
spring  have  been  introduced,  and  while  they  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered essential  in  modern  cars,  of  course  they  are  most  con- 
venient. 

For  the  procedure  in  starting  up  an  engine  and  the  neces- 
sary previous  adjustments  with  any  given  car,  the  best  source 
of  authoritative  information  is  the  maker's  instruction  book, 
every  car  having  its  own  peculiarities.  For  ignition,  carbu- 
reter, and  compression  troubles  which  prevent  starting,  look 
under  the  headings  referring  to  these  subjects. 

THE  STEERING  GEAR. 

Symptoms:  Steering  stiff  or  jerky. — Driver  loses  control. — Con- 
siderable backlash  between  steering  wheel  and  road  wheels. 

Causes:  Unpinned  bolt  drops  out. — Ball  of  ball  joint  comes  adrift 
through  wear  or  want  of  adjustment. — A  link  or  a  steering  arm 
breaks — Bent  steering  link. — Want  of  lubrication. — Backlash  due  to 
wear  in  worm  and  sector. — Wear  in  joints  of  actuating  levers,  in  the 
front  axle  jaws  or  in  the  swivel  pins. — Worn  or  loose  bearings. — 
Wheels  out  of  alignment. 

In  one  sense  the  steering  gear  is  the  most  vital  part  of 
the  car,  for  a  failure,  if  traveling  at  any  speed,  is  very  likely 
to  result  in  a  serious  accident.  The  nuts  and  bolts  securing 
the  various  joints  should  be  properly  pinned  and  inspected 
regularly  to  see  that  the  pins  are  in  position.  In  the  case  of 
ball  joints  these  should  also  be  subject  to  frequent  inspection, 
and  should  be  renewed  if  the  ball  shows  signs  of  flattening. 
Cases  have  occurred  when  the  ball  jolted  out  of  the  joint 
socket  on  account  of  having  worn  flat  on  two  sides,  and  within 
the  fraction  of  a  second  the  car  was  off  the  road.  It  is  well 
to  have  all  joints  covered  with  leather,  carefully  wired  in  posi- 
tion, and  filled  with  vaseline  or  grease. 

Our  illustrations  show  a  form  of  joint  covering  which  not 
only  protects  the  joint  from  mud  and  dust,  but  prevents  the 


128 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


driver  from  losing  control  should  the  connection  fail.  Any 
saddler  can  produce  these  covers,  which  should  be  made  of 
the  best  soft  leather.  Such  leather  as  is  used  for  shoe  uppers 
is  very  suitable.  The  shape  will  vary  with  different  kinds  of 
steering  gear,  but  a  paper  or  cloth  pattern  is  easily  made,  from 
which  the  saddler  can  cut  the  actual  leather  covers.  The  long 


Fig.  1.— A  is  stitched  to  B  along  the  dotted 

lines,  and  a  circular  piece.  D,  is  inserted  at 

the  end  C.  and  sewn  up  to  close  it. 

ends  should  be  amply  wide  and  long,  so  as  to  lap  over  each 
other  completely.  They  may  be  best  secured  to  the  arms  and 
links  by  a  couple  of  water-pipe  clips  to  each  link  end  and 
each  arm  or  lever  end.  The  first  illustration  shows  approxi- 
mately the  shape  to  which  the  leather  should  be  cut,  but  this 
will  vary  with  different  steering  arrangements.  The  second 
shows  the  end  closed  over  and  saddler-sewn,  with  a  circular 


Pig.  2.— Showing  cover  when  stitched 

and  adjusted  to  arm  and  link,  but 

without  the  holding  clips. 

piece  sewn  in  the  end,  and  the  way  in  which  the  flaps  are 
drawn  around  the  links  and  rods  and  overlap  each  other. 

If  properly  fitted,  these  covers  will  hold  the  steering  connec- 
tions together  well  enough  to  enable  the  driver  to  pull  up  be- 
fore the  car  actually  gets  out  of  control.  They  also  protect 
the  joints  from  dirt  and  prevent  wear. 

A  good  idea  is  given  by  a  motorist  who  advises  the  use 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  129 

of  a  spring  between  the  link  and  the  arm  or  the  link  and 
some  part  of  the  chassis  frame,  attached  by  means  of  clips, 
the  spring  being  in  tension  and  normally  keeping  the  ball  in 
the  socket,  even  though  the  ball  or  the  socket  wears  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  otherwise  let  the  joint  apart.  Such  springs  would 
in  no  way  interfere  with  the  easy  steering  of  the  car. 

Frequent  lubrication  is  essential,  or  the  parts  will  work 
stiffly  and  wear  rapidly.  After  a  period  a  certain  amount  of 
backlash  will  be  found  in  the  steering  wheel  and  link  mechan- 
ism, necessitating  a  considerable  movement  of  the  wheel  before 
the  front  road  wheels  respond,  and  also  causing  excessive  wear 
on  the  front  tires,  due  to  the  front  wheels  not  running  abso- 
lutely parallel  to  each  other.  The  causes  and  remedies  are  as 
follows : 

1.  The  wear  between  the  steering  stem   worm   and   the 
sector,  or  the  sliding  nut  and  worm,  as  the  case  may  be,  in 
which  it  engages.    This  is  very  difficult  to  remedy,  but  some- 
times the  movement  can  be  taken  up  by  easing  the  sides  of 
the  case  and  so  bringing  the  two  halves  closer  together.    The 
screw  and  rack-and-pinion  types  can  generally  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  the  lock  nuts  at  the  end  of  the  steering  column. 

2.  Wear  in  ball  joints  or  plain  pins  connecting  the  actu- 
ating rods  and  levers  will  also  cause  backlash.    To  locate  the 
source  of  the  trouble,  jack  up  the  front  wheels,  and,  getting 
someone   to   hold   the   steering  wheel   firm,   rock   one   of   the 
road  wheels  from   side  to  side.     This  will   show  where   the 
movement  is.    If  it  is  a  ball  joint  that  is  at  fault,  adjustment  of 
the  joint   cap   may  put   it  right  unless  the   ball  "is  worn,  in 
which  case  it  must  be  renewed.     Should,  however,  the  move- 
ment be  due  to  wear  in  plain  pins,  they  must  be  renewed  and 
made  a  good  fit  for  the  holes.     Perhaps  the  holes  may  have 
worn   oval.      In   this   case   they   must  be   reamered   out,   and 
new    pins    made    to    fit    them.     If    incased    in    a    leather    fit- 
ting, filled  with  grease,  as  we  have  described,  little  wear  may 
be  anticipated. 

3.  Play  in  the  front  axle  jaws  or  swivel  pins  is  another 
cause  of  backlash.     This  can  be  diagnosed  bv   rocking  the 


130  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

car  sideways  when  the  wheels  are  on  the  ground.  If  the 
play  is  very  perceptible  the  worn  parts  will  have  to  be  re- 
newed. In  the  case  of  such  cars  as  have  ball  swivel  steering 
heads  there  is  always  adjustment  provided,  and  wear  can  be 
easily  taken  up.  If  the  wheels  when  freed  from  the  steering 
links  swing  round  with  a  jerky  motion  the  ball  race  is  pitted 
or  one  or  more  balls  are  probably  broken.  In  the  case  of  balls 
broken  these  should  be  replaced.  If  one  or  other  of  the  ball 
races  are  damaged,  they  should,  of  course,  be  replaced. 

4.  Worn  or  loose  wheel  bearings.  Jack  up  the  wheels, 
and,  gripping  with  both  hands,  rock  them.  In  the  case  of 
ball-bearings,  if  there  is  side  shake,  examine  first  for  wear 
in  the  cones  or  ball  races,  or  for  broken  balls.  If  there  is 
no  defect  of  this  kind,  adjustment  is  probably  all  that  is 
needed.  When  screwing  in  the  cones  for  this  purpose  be 
careful  not  to  over-tighten  them,  or  balls  will  break.  The 
wheel  should  revolve  smoothly  without  any  sign  of  stiff- 
ness, but  there  should  be  no  perceptible  side  movement  when 
it  is  rocked  by  hand.  For  more  detailed  instructions,  see 
Bearings.  Also  be  sure  to  lock  the  cones  with  the  locking 
devices  provided.  In  the  case  of  excessive  wear  in  a  plain 
bearing  the  hub  will  need  rebushing. 

Sometimes  the  distance  rod  between  the  steering  arms 
may  get  bent  through  meeting  with  some  obstruction,  thus 
putting  the  front  wheels  out  of  alignment.  This  will  not 
only  affect  the  steering,  but  will  grind  the  rubber  off  the  tread 
of  the  tires  through  the  dragging  action  set  up.  The  link  must 
be  carefully  straightened  by  bending. 

The  same  cause  may  -bend  the  steering  arms.  In  this 
case  the  link  should  be  detached  and  the  arms  bent  back 
as  nearly  as  possible  into  their  old  position,  a  spanner  or 
block  of  wood  being  wedged  between  the  arm  and  the  wheel 
hub  as  a  fulcrum.  It  is  a  workshop  job  to  get  them  absolutely 
true,  but  as  a  rule  the  steering  link  is  adjustable  as  to  length, 
and  by  careful  manipulation  the  steering  wheels  can  be  got 
into  alignment  and  the  car  used  safely  until  it  is  convenient 
to  get  the  arms  put  right  in  a  properly  equipped  workshop. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  131 

The  best  system  of  checking  the  alignment  of  the  wheels 
is  to  measure  with  a  tape  their  lateral  spacing,  as  explained 
under  "Wheels,  Road." 

STOPPAGE  OF  ENGINE. 

Symptoms:     Engine   stops   for   no   apparent  reason. 

Causes:  Ignition  wrong. — Gasolene  fails  through  stoppage  or  other- 
wise.— Laboring  too  long  on  hill  before  changing. 

When  an  engine  stops  for  no  apparent  cause  the  trouble 
may  generally  be  looked  for  in  the  ignition.  If  it  stops  sud- 
denly, see  to  coil  and  connections  to  battery,  storage  battery 
or  igniters  (in  the  case  of  low  tension  magneto).  If  the  stop- 
page is  gradual  it  may  be  caused  by  a  short  in  one  igniter  (in 
the  case  of  low  tension  magneto  ignition)  or  by  failure  in  the 
carbureter,  shortage  of  gasolene,  lack  of  gasolene,  or  gasolene 
pipes  choked  up,  or  passages  to  carbureter  or  jet  choked. 

A  breakage  of  any  part  of  the  engine,  such  as  is  caused 
by  bad  treatment  or  lack  of  lubrication,  will,  of  course,  cause 
it  to  stop. 

The  experienced  motorist  will  know  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  engine  stops  where  first  to  look  for  the  fault. 

Stoppage  of  the  engine  on  a  hill  due  to  partially  closing 
the  throttle  to  change  speed  and  then  letting  in  the  clutch 
with  the  full  load  on  and  the  engine  running  slowly  may 
occasionally  occur.  The  driver  who  has  once  experienced  this 
will  know  how  to  prevent  it  in  future,  and,  of  course,  no 
repair  or  adjustment  is  required.  For  causes  which  result 
in  engine  stoppages  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  on 
Ignition ;  Carburetion,  Lubrication,  Overheating,  Compres- 
sion, Timing,  etc. 

TIMING— INCORRECT. 

Symptoms:  Knock. — Loss  of  power. — Overheating.— Irregular  fir- 
ing.— Harsh  running. 

Causes:     Ignition   or  valve  timing  faulty. 

If  the  timing  is  not  correct  both  as  regards  ignition  and 


132  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

valves,  the  engine  cannot  give  its  full  power  or  run  sweetly, 
and  in  extreme  cases  injury  will  be  caused  to  the  bearings 
due  to  the  constant  hammering.  Above  all,  it  is  essential 
that  the  firing  in  the  various  cylinders  should  exactly  syn- 
chronize. In  the  case  of  low  tension  magneto  ignition  the 
greatest  nicety  of  adjustment  is  necessary.  This  subject 
is  fully  dealt  with  both  as  regards  ignition  and  valve  timing, 
in  the  chapter  on  Overhauling. 

TIRES. 

Symptoms:  Puncture  of  air  tube. — Boil  in  cover. — Burst. — Clean 
longitudinal  cut  in  rubber  separating  it  from  canvas  cover. 

Causes:  Nails. — Pieces  of  metal — Sharp  stones. — Air  tube  nipped 
under  bead  of  head  of  security  bolt  or  of  valve. — Tire  bolts  defective 
or  bent. — Air  tube  frayed  by  faulty  patch  on  cover. — Gradual  failure  of 
fabric  due  to  split  formed  inside  by  flexion,  or  moisture  penetrating 
neglected  cut  in  rubber. — Neglect  to  repair  boil  in  time. — Tire  bolts 
not  tightened. — Fabric  completely  worn  out. — Excessive  flexion  due 
to  tires  not  being  pumped  hard  enough,  or  to  faulty  construction  caus- 
ing uneven  strain  on  strands  of  fabric  in  one  particular  spot. 

The  variation  in  the  behavior  of  the  same  make  of  tire 
under  identical  cars,  but  in  the  hands  of  different  drivers, 
is  very  great,  and  points  unmistakably  to  the  fact  that  the 
majority  of  tire  troubles  are  due  to  the  drivers  themselves, 
both  as  regards  the  splitting  of  the  fabric  and  wear  to  the 
rubber  tread  through  attrition  and  cuts. 

I.  Prevention — To  begin  with,  proper  inflation  is  of  vital 
importance.  If  the  tire  is  not  pumped  hard  enough,  the 
flexion  and  friction  will  cause  rapid  wear.  Stones  also  will 
gash  both  casing  and  air  tube  against  the  rim.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  tire  is  pumped  board  hard,  the  wear  is  rapid, 
and  the  bumping  will  prove  most  uncomfortable  for  the 
occupants  of  the  car  and  tend  to  shake  the  vehicle  to  pieces. 
According  to  our  experience,  the  tire  should  be  so  pumped 
that,  when  the  car  is  fully  loaded,  the  depression,  where  the 
tire  touches  the  ground,  is  just  appreciable,  but  no  more. 
Another  test  is  to  catch  the  side  of  the  wheel  with  the  hand, 
and  pull  it  backward  and  forward  forcibly.  If  there  is  a  pro- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  133 

nounced  lateral  roll,  it  is  a  pretty  clear  index  that  the  tire 
is  too  soft. 

Here  are  the  special  instructions  issued  by  the  makers  of  the 
Michelin  tires:  "Whether  the  tire  is  properly  inflated  or 
not  is  shown  by  the  extent  to  which  it  flattens.  When  the 
carriage  is  loaded  the  tire  ought  to  flatten  about  2/5ths  of  an 
inch,  but  should  never,  even  on  the  level  streets  of  a  town,  be 
depressed  more  than  3/5ths  of  an  inch."  This,  however, 
at  the  best,  is  but  a  rough  and  ready  method  of  testing  the 
inflation.  A  good  pressure  gauge,  independent  of  the  pump, 
is  essential.  Careful  drivers,  who  drive  at  a  reasonable  speed, 
take  corners  slowly  and  use  their  brakes  with  moderation,  can 
safely  and  beneficially  inflate  their  tires  to  a  pressure  some- 
what less  than  the  minimum  recommended  in  the  manufac- 
turers' catalogues. 

Few  motorists  have  any  idea  of  the  great  influence  the 
actual  driving  has  on  the  wear  and  tear  of  tires.  Corners 
should  be  taken  at  a  reasonable  speed,  and  the  brakes  should 
never  be  jammed  on  hard,  except  in  the  case  of  an  actual 
emergency.  One  violently  sudden  stop  may  do  more  injury 
to  a  tire  than  a  month's  ordinary  use. 

Rust  on  the  edge  of  the  rim  is  another  fruitful  source  of 
trouble,  and  for  this  reason  care  should  be  taken  to  clean  the 
wet  dirt  away  after  each  run.  Should  rust  appear,  it  would 
be  a  wise  precaution  to  take  off  or  push  back  the  cover, 
or  casing,  and  clean  it  away.  The  spot  should  then  be  treated 
with  some  good  air-drying  enamel,  and  the  bottom  of  the  rim 
polished  with  blacklead  or  graphite.  This  latter  process  fa- 
cilitates the  removal  and  replacement  of  the  cover.  When 
about  to  inflate  the  tire,  the  operator  should  first  make  a  stroke 
or  two  with  the  pump  before  screwing  it  on  the  valve,  so  as 
to  eject  the  dust  which  might  otherwise  get  into  the  valve  and 
cause  a  leakage.  The  valve  cap  should  always  be  kept  screwed 
on  to  prevent  dust  entering,  except  when  the  tire  is  being  actu- 
ally inflated.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  fixing  bolts 
should  be  invariably  screwed  up  tight — by  hand  only — for  if 
they  are  not,  the  cover  will  move,  and  damage  will  be  caused  to 


134  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  edges  and  to  the  air  tube,  or  the  air  tube  may  blow  out 
between  the  bead  and  the  rim.  In  extreme  cases  the  valve 
may  be  even  torn  out ;  water,  too,  may  get  in,  and  rot  the 
fabric.  After  putting  on  a  new  cover,  or  repairing  a  punc- 
ture, it  will  be  found  that  the  bolts  get  comparatively  loose 
within  a  few  miles,  and  consequently  it  is  well  to  examine 
them  at  intervals,  and  screw  them  right  home.  Another  source 
of  trouble  is  to  be  found  in  the  canvas  covering  the  bolt  head 
or  flange,  on  which  the  air  tube  rests,  becoming  creased  or 
displaced.  This  may  nip  the  air  tube  or  set  up  wearing  fric- 
tion. Bent  bolts  should  be  straightened,  or  if  seriously  dam- 
aged discarded,  otherwise  the  heads  may  not  sit  straight  in- 
side the  tire,  and  the  air  tube  may  get  nipped.  Cuts  in  the 
outer  cover,  which  penetrate  to  the  fabric,  will  inevitably  ad- 
mit water,  and  so  rot  the  cover.  These  should  be  repaired  at 
once. 

Needless  to  say,  puncture  is  the  most  frequent  source  of 
trouble.  This,  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases,  is  due  to  the 
air  tube  becoming  nipped,  through  the  tire  having  been  put 
on  wrongly.  Many  owners  never  trust  any  maker,  but  make 
a  point  of  detaching  each  tire  and  seeing  that  the  air  tube 
is  properly  placed  before  driving  a  new  car.  The  cause  of 
nipping  we  will  deal  with  when  describing  how  to  replace  an 
air  tube.  Next  to  nipping,  nails  are  the  most  frequent  cause 
of  puncture.  With  unprotected  tires  nail-catchers  are  effec- 
tive. If  the  tire  is  smooth  on  the  tread  a  very  simple  catch  can 
be  improvised  out  of  light  curb  chains  attached  to  the  lower 
side  of  the  mudguard,  so  that  the  loop  touches  the  tire  and 
extracts  the  nail  before  it  has  penetrated  any  distance. 

The  protection  of  tires  from  damp  and  sunlight,  either  when 
complete  or  when  the  cover  and  air-tube  are  separate,  is  of 
vital  importance.  If  the  cover  is  exposed  to  damp,  tiny  mush- 
room organisms  form  rapidly,  which  reduce  the  fabric  to 
mold,  whereas  sunlight  has  a  very  bad  effect  on  the  rubber ; 
consequently  spare  tires  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  atmos- 
phere. When  fixed  to  the  car,  as  in  the  case  of  detachable 
rims  or  demountable  wheels,  they  should  be  completely  cov- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  135 

ered.  The  floor  of  the  garage  should  be  kept  dry  and  free 
from  oil,  and  if  the  car  is  not  in  use  for  a  considerable  period, 
it  would  be  well  to  jack  up  the  wheels.  All  sand  and  grit 
should  be  removed  after  every  run.  If  allowed  to  remain, 
they  accumulate  and  form  little  lumps  which  eventually  cut 
through  the  canvas.  Above  all  things,  the  rubber  should  be 
kept  from  contact  with  grease,  which  is  most  deleterious — 
causing  the  rubber  to  lose  its  elasti^^y  and  become  rotten. 
The  rims  should  be  carefully  driec  *,:er  a  muddy  run,  and 
should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  rust. 

Tires  should  be  cleansed  with  a  damp  sponge  or  cloth,  and 
on  no  account  should  a  mixture  of  kerosene  and  water,  which 
is  sometimes  used  for  cleaning  the  bodywork,  be  allowed  to 
reach  them.  Kerosene  has  a  most  damaging  effect  on  rubber. 

In  the  case  of  metal-studded  tires,  repairs  are  difficult,  and 
very  often  cannot  effectively  be  carried  out.  The  most  usual 
defect  is  a  loss  of  studs  through  the  violent  application  of  the 
brakes  or  starting  too  suddenly.  The  hole  left  in  the  rubber  is 
apt  to  let  the  wet  into  the  fabric,  which  will  prove  fatal  to  the 
cover  in  a  very  short  time.  In  most  cases  it  may  be  possible 
to  fill  up  these  holes  either  with  the  aid  of  one  of  the  special 
preparations  supplied  for  filling  cuts  or  with  the  hti,  of  a  vul- 
canizer.  It  is  well  worth  trying  at  all  events. 

2.  Detaching  Edge  of  Casing — Whether  a  puncture  is  due 
to  some  penetrating  substance  or  to  the  troublesome  nip,  the 
method  of  repair  is  the  same  in  the  case  of  the  popular 
clinched-on  type  of  pneumatic  tire.  The  first  operation  is 
to  jack  up  the  wheel  which  carries  the  punctured  tire,  hav- 
ing first  "chocked  off"  the  other  wheels  by  means  of  blocks 
placed  before  and  behind;  otherwise  the  car  may  move  for- 
ward or  backward  and  break  the  jack  or  injure  the  rim  and 
tire.  The  butterfly  nuts  should  be  unscrewed  from  the  bolts 
to  the  end  of  the  screw,  but,  as  a  rule,  need  not  be  entirely 
removed.  The  bolts  should  be  pushed  upwards,  with  the  aid  of 
a  tire  remover  held  flat,  until  they  are  flush  with  the  felloe. 
The  valve  stem  also  should  be  cleared  of  nuts,  etc.,  and 
pushed  upwards,  using  the  tire  remover,  gripped  in  both 


136  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

hands  for  the  purpose.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the 
end  of  the  valve  stem  be  struck  with  any  instrument,  wooden 
or  otherwise.  The  cover  should  then  be  worked  with  the 
hands  until  the  near  bead  is  loosened  in  the  flange  or  clinch 
of  the  rim,  and  then  the  end  of  one  of  the  tire  levers  should 
be  inserte4  under  the  bead — carefully,  however,  lest  the  inner 
tube  be  nipped.  Meanwhile  the  tire  bolts  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  should  be  pushed  upward  until  the  butterfly  nuts 
touch  the  felloe.  The  second  and  third  tire  levers  should  be 
inserted  about  6  or  8  inches  further  on,  but  clear  of  the  tire 
bolts.  If  the  operator  is  alone,  he  should  get  his  left  knee 
against  the  first  lever  and  catch  the  other  two  in  his  right  and 
left  hand  respectively.  Simultaneous  pressure  on  all  three 
will  remove  a  considerable  length  of  the  bead  out  of  the  rim. 
If  a  passenger  is  present  to  operate  number  one  lever,  his 
assistance  should,  of  course,  be  enlisted.  The  remainder  of 
the  casing  can  then,  as  a  rule,  be  taken  off  by  a  strong  pull  of 
the  hand  inserted  under  the  edge.  If  not,  the  use  of  the  tire 
levers  must  be  continued.  One  side  of  the  cover  being  off,  the 
air  tube  can  be  wholly  withdrawn,  on  the  valve  being  lifted 
out  of  the  rim  in  the  manner  hereinafter  described. 

Special  dismantling  levers  of  various  types  are  on  the  mar- 
ket designed  to  facilitate  the  removal  or  replacement  of  the 
valve  or  security  (tire)  bolts,  and  the  detachment  and  re- 
placement of  the  beaded  edges  of  the  cover.  They  are  de- 
scribed further  on. 

3.  Replacing  the  Casing — To  get  the  casing  bead  back  into 
position  first  replace  the  air  tube  in. the  manner  hereinafter 
described,  carefully  avoiding  twists  or  distortions,  and  then 
slightly  inflate  the  tube  so  as  to  prevent  its  getting  nipped 
under  the  tire  bolt  or  valve  head.  Next  push  the  stem  of 
the  valve  up  high  into  the  tire,  and  carefully  getting  the  edge 
of  the  cover,  where  it  has  a  piece  nicked  out  opposite  the  stem 
of  the  valve,  push  it  down  between  the  head  of  the  valve  and 
the  rim  with  the  hands  or  tire  levers,  working  it  gradually  into 
position  under  the  clinch  of  the  rim.  For  this  purpose  the 
hooked  end  of  the  tire  lever  should  be  slipped  over  the  bead 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  137 

of  the  rim  and  the  other  end  of  the  lever  raised.  The  flat  end 
of  a  second  tire  lever  may  be  used  for  pushing  the  beaded  edge 
of  the  cover  home  under  the  edge  of  the  rim.  The  last  little 
bit  is  generally  the  most  troublesome,  but  a  few  vigorous 
pushes  on  the  tire  lever  will  force  it  home.  Care  must  be 
taken  as  each  bolt  is  approached  to  push  it  up  until  the  butter- 
fly nut  is  flush  with  the  felloe,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  cover 
is  sure  to  get  under  the  head  of  the  bolt.  It  is  a  good  plan, 
then,  to  knead  the  tire  backward  and  forward  with  the  hands, 
so  as  to  make  sure  that  everything  is  in  position.  Replace 
the  various  washers  and  nuts  belonging  to  the  valve  and  tire 
bolts  and  screw  all  home.  After  this,  fully  inflate  the  tire, 
and  as  it  gets  harder  continue  to  screw  up  the  valve  nut  and 
the  butterfly  nuts  securing  the  bolts.  After  the  car  has  run 
a  short  distance,  these  bolts  are  likely  to  settle  home  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  become  loose  again.  It  is,  therefore,  well  to 
stop  and  screw  up  tightly.  If  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
getting  the  valve  to  project  far  enough  through  the  felloe  to 
enable  the  outside  nut  to  bite,  knead  and  thump  the  cover  just 
over  and  alongside  the  valve  with  the  hands  before  the  tire 
has  become  thoroughly  inflated.  If,  in  spite  of  this,  it  will 
not  come  through,  it  is  possible  that  the  stem  of  the  valve  is 
strained  against  the  side  of  the  hole,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to 
take  oft"  the  bead  of  the  cover  near  the  valve  again  and  re-ar- 
range the  tube. 

4.  Fitting  a  New  Casing — This  is  a  heavy  job,  and  the  use 
of  special  tire  manipulators  is  almost  essential.  After  having 
detached  the  outside  edge,  as  already  described,  the  tire  bolts 
and  air  tube  must  be  removed,  the  tire  manipulator  being 
made  use  of  to  lever  the  cover  away  from  the  holes  in  the  rim, 
thus  leaving  room  for  the  easy  removal  of  the  bolts  and  valve. 
To  complete  the  removal  of  the  old  cover,  detach  the  second 
or  inner  edge  by  pulling  the  cover  towards  you  with  your  left 
hand.  As  soon  as  the  bead  has  partly  left  the  clinch  of  the 
rim,  drive  the  detaching  lever  under  the  edge  already  freed  and 
then  under  the  second.  Lower  the  lever  towards  the  spokes 
of  the  wheel,  drawing  the  cover  outward  with  your  left  hand. 


138  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

As  soon  as  about  eight  inches  of  the  cover  have  been  com- 
pletely released  from  the  rim,  you  can  take  the  rest  out  with 
your  hand. 

Before  fitting  the  new  casing,  rub  the  beads  with  French 
chalk  to  facilitate  their  slipping  into  position,  and  polish  the 
inside  of  the  rim  thoroughly  with  blacklead,  using  a  stiff 
brush  for  the  purpose.  Then  turn  the  wheel  round  until  the 
hole  in  the  rim  for  the  valve  is  on  top,  and  insert  a  spigot  of 
wood  or  dummy  valve,  forcing  it  well  home.  Then  take  the 
cover  with  the  valve  slit  on  top  and  the  smaller  diameter 
bead  towards  you  (in  the  case  of  tires  where  there  is  a  slight 
difference  between  the  size  of  the  two  beads),  place  it  on  the 
rim  so  that  the  valve  slit  coincides  with  the  dummy  valve,  and 
with  the  two  hands  try  to  fit  the  bead  around  the  rim  as  far 
as  possible.  Insert  the  right  hand  inside  the  cover  at  the 
spot  where  the  cover  has  refused  to  go  further  on  the  rim,  and 
with  the  fingers  closed  and  the  palm  pressing  on  the  inside 
bead,  try  to  force  a  further  portion  of  the  bead  into  the 
clinch  of  the  rim.  Towards  the  end  of  the  operation,  when 
this  becomes  too  hard  to  do  by  hand,  use  the  flat  end  of  the 
lever  by  inserting  it  between  the  bead  and  the  rim.  Do  not 
remove  the  dummy  valve  until  replacing  the  inner  tube. 

The  greatest  difficulty  is  to  get  the  slits  in  the  beaded 
edges  corresponding  to  the  position  of  the  valve  and  bolts 
into  place.  They  should  not  vary  the  smallest  fraction,  and 
if  there  is  any  sign  of  a  strain  on  the  side  of  the  valve  or 
bolts,  the  operator  must  work  the  cover  round  until  they  are 
quite  free. 

The  valve  and  security  bolts  will  have  to  be  replaced  with 
the  aid  of  the  forked  manipulator,  the  latter  being  used  to 
raise  the  outer  bead  of  the  cover  out  of  the  way  and  at  the 
same  time  push  the  inner  bead  away  from  the  center  of  the  rim. 
The  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  is  then  replaced  in  the  outer  clinch 
of  the  rim,  as  already  described.  The  operation  of  getting 
on  a  new  cover,  as  a  rule,  entails  much  kneading  and  thumping 
with  the  hands,  which  seem  to  have  the  effect  of  increasing 
its  flexibility. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  139 

The  tire  bolts  should  have  leather,  rubber,  or  canvas  washers 
at  the  base  to  prevent  water  reaching  the  inside  of  the  tire, 
and  the  operator  should  make  sure  that  the  wing  nuts  have 
gone  right  home,  and  are  not  in  reality  only  screwed  up  to  a 
position  where  the  thread  jams  on  the  bolts,  so  that  the  heads 
of  the  bolts  inside  the  tire  are  not  gripping  the  beads.  To 
guard  against  such  a  contingency,  it  is  well  to  ascertain  before 
putting  new  bolts  into  a  tire  that  the  wing  nuts  are  easy  fits  on 
the  bolts  all  the  way  up. 

5.  Removing  Air  Tube — Dismantle  the  valve.     With  the 
left  hand  take  hold  of  the  free  edge  of  the  cover  which  is 
opposite  the  valve,  the  palm  of  the  hand  being  against  the 
edge  and  the  fingers  extended  inside  the  cover.     Gently  draw 
the  inner  tube  with  your  right  hand,  going  round  the  whole 
length  of  the  tire  and  taking  great  care  not  to  tear  the  tube. 
If  the  tube  appears  to  adhere  to  the  cover,  hold  it  closely  and 
pull  cautiously.     Then  only  the  part  of  the  inner  tube  on 
which  the  valve  is  fitted  will  remain  in  the  rim.    The  special 
manipulator  should  now  be  brought  into  operation  in  order  to 
lever  the  outer  edge  of  the  cover  back  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  inner  bead  clear  of  the  valve,  as  described  farther  on. 

6.  Replacing  Air  Tube  or  Fitting  a  New  One — Before  com- 
mencing to  replace  the  air  tube,  carefully  clean  out  the  inside 
of  the  shoe.    Then  rub  a  small  quantity  of  French  chalk  over 
the  inner  surface,  and  apply  French  chalk  to  the  air  tube  also. 
Use  the  manipulator  to  push  back  the  outer  bead  of  the  cover 
and  to  keep  the  inner  bead  from  covering  the  valve  hole  in 
the  rim.    Then  fit  the  valve  in  position. 

To  place  the  inner  tube  evenly  round  the  cover,  see  that 
the  heads  of  the  tire  bolts  rest  flat  on  the  rim,  and  raise  the 
free  edge  of  the  cover  with  the  left  hand  about  ten  inches  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the  valve,  to  make  way  for  the 
inner  tube.  Take  the  tube  in  the  right  hand,  the  thumb  being 
on  the  top,  and  with  the  end  of  the  extended  fingers  push 
the  tube  well  down  inside  the  cover,  which  should  be  raised 
as  much  as  possible  with  the  left  hand  to  allow  the  right  hand 
to  enter  the  cover  as  far  as  it  can.  Go  on  adjusting  the  inner 


140  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

tube  by  sections  of  ten  inches,  taking  great  care  not  to  stretch 
or  twist  it,  and  as  each  new  portion  is  inserted  gently,  draw  it 
towards  the  length  that  has  just  been  placed  in  position.  It 
is  essential  that  the  tube  should  not  be  stretched  in  the  op- 
eration or  it  will  overlap  in  folds  when  the  last  section  has 
been  inserted.  When  the  inner  tube  is  deflated  it  always  seems 
too  large  for  the  cover. 

Having  got  the  tube  in  position,  inflate  slightly.  Slide  the 
hand  between  the  rim  and  the  tube  to  make  sure  that  the  tube 
is  not  bunched  up  in  one  part  and  stretched  in  another,  twisted, 
creased,  or  nipped  under  valve  or  bolts,  and  see  that  the  canvas 
covering  the  tire  bolt  head  is  not  creased  or  wrinkled.  Then 
replace  cover  as  already  described,  taking  care  that  the  air  tube 
is  not  nipped  between  the  bead  and  the  rim  in  the  process.  To 
minimize  this  risk,  be  very  careful  to  ascertain  that  the  two 
tire  bolts  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  length  of  bead- 
ing which  is  being  inserted  are  pushed  up  in  the  tire  as  far  as 
they  will  go  and  held  in  this  position. 

If  the  operator  is  not  absolutely  sure  that  the  air  tube  is 
not  nipped  under  the  bead  of  the  rim,  he  should  carry  out 
the  following  test:  Grasp. the  cover  with  one  hand,  the  palm 
being  near  the  bead.  Push  the  cover  towards  the  car.  Use 
the  point  of  a  lever  held  in  the  other  hand  to  raise  and  push 
back  the  bead  towards  the  center  of  the  rim.  Examine  the 
space  inside  the  rim  between  the  edge  of  the  rim  and  the  bead 
of  the  cover.  Be  especially  careful  to  examine  the  last  portion 
of  the  bead  fitted.  If  the  color  of  the  tube  is  revealed,  it  indi- 
cates a  nip,  and  a  detaching  lever  must  be  inserted  at  the  place 
and  operated  as  when  taking  off  a  cover.  Then  allow  the  bead 
to  return  to  its  place,  and  carefully  ascertain  whether  the  op- 
eration has  got  rid  of  the  nip.  Replace  the  bead  and  continue 
the  test  all  round  the  tire.  To  check  for  nips  caused  by  tire 
bolts  and  valve,  it  is  sufficient  once  the  second  bead  is  in  posi- 
tion to  press  the  valve  and  the  stems  of  the  bolts  inward,  allow- 
ing the  air  pressure  in  the  tube  to  return  them  to  their  places. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  141 

Fig.  I  shows  the  inner  tube  nipped  under  one  corner  of 
the  beaded  edge  of  the  tire. 

Fig.  2  shows  how  the  inner  tube  may  be  nipped  between  the 
side  of  the  tire  bolt  and  the  inside  of  the  bead  of  the  tire. 

Fig.  3  shows  how  it  may  be  nipped  similarly  between  the 
head  of  the  valve  and  the  inside  of  the  beaded  edge  of  the  tire 


Fig   1  Fig  2.  Fig  3. 

In  all  these  cases  considerable  injury  will  be  done  to  the 
inner  tube. 

A  nip  may  easily  be  caused  through  the  stem  of  a  tire 
bolt  being  bent.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  may  stick  in  the 
felloe,  or,  owing  to  its  being  bent,  the  tube  may  slip  under 
the  head,  resulting  in  a  small  burst.  A  bent  bolt,  therefore, 
should  always  be  replaced  with  a  new  one.  If  the  leather  on 
the  head  is  creased  and  cannot  be  smoothed  out,  a  new  bolt 
should  be  substituted.  The  butterfly  nut  should  be  tightened 
by  hand  and  not  with  pincers,  and  on  no  account  should  the 
bolt  or  valve  be  hammered  unless  with  a  block  of  wood  be- 
tween as  a  buffer,  and  then  only  as  a  last  resource. 

It  is  a  wise  precaution,  before  inserting  the  tube,  to  see 
that  the  nut  holding  the  valve  seat  in  place  on  the  tube  is 
screwed  up  tight,  as  it  sometimes  shakes  loose  while  in  the 
tire  bag,  owing  to  vibration. 

7.  Repairing  a  Puncture — It  is  always  advisable  to  carry 
spare  air  tubes,  and  to  insert  one  in  place  of  the  punctured 
one.  The  puncture  can  then  be  repaired  at  leisure,  prefer- 
ably with  the  aid  of  a  vulcanizer ;  but  if  a  tube  is  not  available, 
a  fairly  satisfactory  job  can  be  made  with  a  rubber  patch  and 
solution  as  follows:  Carefully  rub  the  air  tube  for  a  consid- 
erable space  round  the  puncture  with  sandpaper,  then  clean 


142  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

with  gasolene,  and  while  still  damp  scrape  with  the  blade  of 
a  knife  held  edge  downward.  A  rubber  patch  of  suitable  size 
should  be  treated  similarly.  Next  spread  with  the  fingers  a 
thin  layer  of  solution  over  the  patch  and  the  prepared  por- 
tion of  the  air  tube.  If  it  is  at  all  thick,  or  there  are  any  blobs, 
the  air  will  force  its  way  out  when  the  tire  has  been  running 
for  a  little  while,  and  has  become  hot.  After  spreading  the 
solution,  lay  the  patch  and  air  tube  aside  to  dry,  and,  after 
waiting  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  touch  the  surface  lightly 
with  the  finger.  If  either  patch  or  air  tube  adheres,  the  solu- 
tion is  not  yet  dry  enough,  and  the  operator  should  wait  until 
it  becomes  so  dry  that  it  does  not  stick  to  the  finger.  Then 
apply  the  patch  carefully,  smoothing  it  into  position  until  it 
lies  quite  flat,  and  without  creases.  Roll  it  under  pressure 
with  the  chalk  cylinder,  and  if  possible  put  it  between  two  flat 
and  heavy  surfaces  for  a  few  minutes.  The  patch  should  be 
well  sprinkled  with  chalk  before  the  tube  is  replaced  in  the 
casing,  shoe  or  cover. 

It  is,  however,  far  safer  to  repair  the  puncture  in  the  motor 
house  at  one's  leisure.  The  solution  on  patch  and  tube  should 
be  left  to  dry  for  several  hours,  or  even  for  an  entire  night. 
The  patch  should  then  be  rolled  into  position,  and  the  repaired 
portion,  having  been  placed  between  two  boards,  should  be  left 
in  the  vise  under  moderate  pressure  for  an  hour. 

A  vulcanized  repair  is,  of  course,  more  reliable,  and  can 
easily  be  effected  by  following  the  printed  directions  in  the 
booklets  issued  by  the  manufacturers  of  vulcanizers. 

The  following  system  of  effecting  a  roadside  repair  is  suc- 
cessful if  properly  carried  out :  Thoroughly  clean  both  patch 
and  tube  with  sandpaper,  and  apply  three  coats  of  solution  to 
both,  allowing  the  two  first  coats  to  become  quite  dry  before 
putting  on  the  next.  When  the  third  coat  has  become  almost 
dry,  pass  a  brush  or  pad  of  cloth  thoroughly  wet  with  sulphu- 
reted  hydrogen  over  the  solution  on  the  inner  tube,  and  press 
the  patch  instantly  in  its  place,  when  the  repair  is  complete 
and  the  tube  can  be  used  at  once.  The  most  important  point 
in  this  method  of  repair  is  that  the  patch  must  be  placed  on  the 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  143 

tube  within  ten  seconds  from  the  application  of  the  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  as  otherwise  it  will  not  be  successful. 

Wheel  rims  should  occasionally  be  examined  for  dents  or 
bulges,  as  these  defects  cause  the  edges  of  the  rim  to  have 
a  decided  cutting  action  on  the  beaded  edge  of  the  casing. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  when  the  car  has  been  driven  on 
a  flat  tire,  as  the  rim  is  then  more  liable  to  damage.  If  the 
edge  has  been  flattened  it  is  best  to  have  it  attended  to  by 
a  competent  man,  but  bulges,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  gently 
tapped  back  into  shape,  care  being  taken  not  to  mark  the  metal 
with  the  hammer.  Afterward,  the  part  which  has  been  operated 
upon  should  be  touched  up  with  paint  and  well  varnished, 
otherwise  the  rim  will  rust,  causing  injury  to  the  casing.' 

If  possible,  avoid  driving  on  a  deflated  tire;  it  will  ruin 
both  cover  and  air  tube,  and  may  so  dent  the  rim  as  to  render 
the  fitting  of  a  new  cover  difficult,  and  when  fitted,  to  set  up 
internal  wear.  If  there  is  no  spare  cover  on  board  the  car  and 
the  injury  is  beyond  roadside  repair,  remove  the  air  tube,  and 
while  one  side  of  the  cover  is  out  of  the  rim,  stuff  the  inside 
with  rope,  felt,  or  such  like.  Then  carefully  replace  the  cover 
in  the  usual  way,  and  screw  home  the  butterfly  nuts  firmly. 

A  driver  once  made  a  most  effective  temporary  repair  in  the 
following  way :  Securing  some  rope,  he  cut  it  so  as  to  some- 
what exceed  in  length  the  circumference  of  the  tire,  and  then 
formed  a  loop  on  one  end.  He  next  procured  a  quantity  of 
felt,  and  bound  it  neatly  round  the  rope,  until  the  bulk  was  suf- 
ficient to  make  a  comparatively  tight  fit  inside  the  cover.  This 
makeshift  was  then  laid  on  the  rim,  the  end  of  the  rope  placed 
through  the  loop,  and  having  been  pulled  taut,  was  secured. 
Then  the  cover  was  replaced,  and  the  tire  was  found  to  act 
admirably.  Of  course,  it  was  "dead,"  and  there  was  a  distinct 
bump  at  the  point  where  the  joint  in  the  rope  occurred.  It 
was,  however,  almost  as  comfortable  as  a  solid  tire,  and  pro- 
tected the  rim  perfectly.  For  a  comparatively  short  distance 
a  car  might  be  so  driven  without  even  causing  injury  to  the 
cover. 

Another  system  which  can  be  recommended  is  to  wholly  re- 


144  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

move  air  tube  and  cover  and  twist  a  length  of  rope  round  and 
round  the  rim,  splicing  the  ends  and  wiring  in  position. 

Some  types  of  tires  depend  altogether  on  mechanical  fasten- 
ing. To  detach  these  is  a  plain,  straightforward  job.  In  replac- 
ing them,  the  same  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  tube 
from  being  nipped.  It  is  also  necessary  that  when  an  annu- 
lar band  is  used  it  should  be  replaced  in  the  same  position,  and 
to  insure  this  it  is  well  to  mark  both  the  band  and  the  rim. 
In  every  case  the  special  booklets  describing  these  tires  should 
be  procured. 

8.  Repairing  Casings — This  is  essentially  a  case  where  pre- 
vention is  better  than  cure.  A  burst  is  caused,  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  by  wet  penetrating  through  a  cut  in  the 
rubber  and  gradually  rotting  the  fabric ;  or  through  the  strands 
of  the  fabric  getting  cut  by  the  sawing  action  set  up  between 
them.  As  regards  the  first  cause  of  failure,  the  remedy  is  to 
repair  the  cuts  as  soon  as  they  appear,  in  the  manner  herein- 
after described.  As  regards  the  second  cause  of  failure,  it  is 
generally  due  to  the  tires  being  used  too  slack,  thus  causing 
excessive  flexion. 

Whatever  the  cause,  an  impending  burst  is  generally  noti- 
fied by  a  boil  or  slight  swelling  at  the  weak  spot,  and  the 
moment  such  becomes  apparent  the  outer  edge  of  the  cover 
should  be  removed  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  fabric.  If 
it  is  found  that  the  fabric  is  failing,  the  driver  should  affix  a 
gaiter  over  the  outer  cover  at  the  weak  spot  to  enable  him  to 
get  home  and  carry  out  a  permanent  repair.  If  a  burst  actu- 
ally occurs,  a  piece  of  canvas  should  be  cut  long  enough  to 
extend  about  eight  inches  beyond  the  burst,  and  wide  enough 
when  bent  round  in  a  tube  to  considerably  exceed  the  circum- 
ference of  the  tire.  This  canvas  should  be  inserted  between 
one  edge  of  the  cover  and  the  rim.  It  should  be  pulled  over 
the  air  tube  as  it  lies  flat  on  the -rim,  and  then  should  be  pulled 
out  under  the  other  edge  of  the  cover.  The  canvas  should 
next  be  manipulated  until  it  rests  snugly  and  closely  inside  the 
cover,  forming  a  close-fitting  envelope  between  it  and  the  air 
tube,  the  edges,  of  course,  extending  beyond  both  beaded 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  145 

edges  of  the  cover.  The  beaded  edges  should  then  be  replaced 
in  the  rim,  with  the  edges  of  the  canvas  protruding  at  both 
sides,  and  the  tire  inflated.  If  the  job  is  properly  performed, 
the  canvas  will  adapt  itself  exactly  to  the  size  of  the  tire,  and 
take  the  strain  at  the  burst  portion.  If  it  is  a  bad  fit,  that  por- 
tion where  the  tire  burst  is  will  be  either  smaller  than  the  rest 
of  the  tire  or  larger.  In  either  case  the  tire  should  be  deflated, 
and  the  operator  should  try  again.  It  is  a  wise  precaution  to 
fit  a  sleeve  over  the  faulty  portion  of  the  casing  for  additional 
security. 

To  make  a  permanent  repair  the  use  of  a  vulcanizer  is,  as 
a  rule,  necessary.  In  most  towns  there  is  an  expert  in  the 
art,  who  can  be  relied  upon  to  do  the  work  satisfactorily,  or 
the  tire  can  be  sent  to  the  makers.  Many  automobile  owners 
keep  a  vulcanizer  in  their  garages,  and  if  the  chauffeur  is  ex- 
pert it  will  prove  a  profitable  investment. 

If  a  burst  has  to  be  repaired  on  tour  and  no  vulcanizer  is 
available,  a  more  durable  job  can  be  effected  as  follows :  Re- 
move the  cover  from  the  rim.  Remove  all  the  decayed  or  faulty 
portion  of  the  first  or  innermost  layer  of  fabric ;  then  remove 
in  succession  smaller  portions  of  the  next  layers,  reducing  the 
size  in  proportion  until  the  one  next  the  rubber  is  reached. 
Then  remove  all  French  chalk  or  dirt  and  thoroughly  wash 
the  fabric  and  rubber  about  the  burst  with  a  rag  soaked  in 
gasolene.  Next  cut  a  piece  of  rubber  to  fit  the  innermost 
aperture,  and  also  portions  of  canvas  to  exactly  fit  the  vari- 
ous apertures  in  the  successive  layers  of  fabric.  Solution  these 
patches  on  both  sides  and  leave  to  dry  for  about  twenty 
minutes.  Also  thoroughly  solution  the  exposed  surfaces  of 
the  burst,  working  the  solution  between  the  layers  of  fabric 
where  possible.  Now  place  the  rubber  patch  first  in  position 
so  as  to  exclude  the  wet,  and  after  that  the  canvas  patches  in 
succession.  Use  pressure  to  insure  firm  contact.  A  rounded 
wooden  block  is  the  best  means.  To  complete  the  job  take 
a  larger  piece  of  canvas  of  the  size  and  shape  recommended 
when  temporarily  repairing  a  burst.  Solution  one  side,  and 
also  spread  a  coat  of  solution  over  the  existing  patches  as 


146  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

they  rest  in  place  and  for  several  inches  on  both  sides  of  them. 
Let  the  solution  dry  for  twenty  minutes,  and  then  place  the 
canvas  patch,  solutioned  side  downward,  carefully  in  position, 
bringing  the  edges  well  over  the  beaded  edges  of  the  cover. 
Avoid  creasing,  as  any  unevenness  will  set  up  friction  and 
chafe  the  air  tube.  Scatter  French  chalk  over  the  repair  and  re- 
place the  casing. 

In  some  cases  boils  are  superficial,  being  caused  by  dirt 
and  grit  penetrating  through  a  small  cut  in  the  cover  and 
working  their  way  between  the  rubber  and  the  fabric.  These 
should  be  attended  to  at  once.  The  grit  should  first  be  care- 
fully removed  by  a  blunt  instrument — the  flattened  end  of  a 
match  will  do.  The  fabric  and  rubber  where  they  have  parted 
company  should  then  be  cleaned  with  gasolene  or  benzene  as 
far  as  possible,  and  solution  should  be  carefully  worked  in. 
It  would  be  advisable  to  allow  the  solution  to  stand  for  a  few 
minutes  to  become  tacky.  The  rubber  should  then  be  firmly 
pressed  downwards  and  tape  wound  round  the  tire  so  as  to 
press  the  rubber  at  the  damaged  spot  firmly  against  the  fabric. 
The  tape  should  be  left  in  position  for  several  hours,  during 
which  period  the  car  should  not  be  used. 

As  already  mentioned,  cuts  in  the  rubber  of  the  outer  cover, 
even  if  only  nail  holes,  should  be  repaired  at  once,  if  possible 
on  the  very  day  they  are  discovered.  The  only  really  ef- 
fective method  is  by  vulcanizing,  and  every  motorist  should 
carry  one  of  the  excellent  little  car  vulcanizers  now  on  the 
market.  Full  instructions  are  supplied  with  the  vulcanizers. 

Those  who,  from  mistaken  ideas  of  economy,  do  not  invest 
in  this  useful  appliance  will  have  to  try  one  of  the  many  special 
preparations  now  on  the  market.  We  will  describe  the  method 
of  application.  Clean  all  dirt  out  of  the  cut  and  scrape  both  sides 
with  the  blade  of  a  knife,  if  necessary  trimming  the  jagged 
edges.  Then  wash  thoroughly  with  gasolene  or  benzene.  Next 
fill  the  cut  with  a  layer  of  the  preparation,  and  after  allow- 
ing fifteen  minutes  for  it  to  dry,  add  successive  layers  until 
the  surface  is  quite  flush.  The  repair  should  be  left  for 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


147 


twenty-four  hours  to  set.  If  properly  applied,  such  a  repair  is 
generally  effective,  but  cannot  be  relied  upon  absolutely. 

9.  Valve  Troubles — The  non-return  valve  of  a  pneumatic 
automobile  tire  is  in  principle  and  general  construction  almost 
the  same  as  the  valve  of  a  bicycle  tire,  with  which  it  is  pre- 
sumed our  readers  are  acquainted. 

One  common  type  of  valve  which  is  now  fitted  to  motor- 
car tires,  consists  of  a  hollow  stem  A  into  which  fits  the  valve 
proper,  B.  This  consists  of  a  hollow  spindle,  having  at  its  top 
end  a  conical  seat  O.  Inside  the  spindle  is  loosely  fitted  a 
small  wire  or  pin  J,  having  at  its  top  end  a  cone  of  vulcanized 
rubber.  This  cone  forms  a  valve,  and  fits  into  the  conical 
seating  O  in  the  top  end  of  the  hollow  spindle. 


FIG.  4.— TYPICAL  TIRE  VALVE. 

On  the  hollow  spindle  is  a  shoulder,  against  which  is  a 
rubber  washer  G.  The  spindle  is  kept  pressed  down  into  the 
valve  stem  by  a  screwed  gland'C,  and  an  air-tight  joint  is  made 
between  the  rubber  washer  and  a  shoulder  inside  the  valve 
stem.  The  outside  end  of  the  spindle  is  threaded  to  take  a 
pump  connection. 

Leaky  valves   occasionally   cause   trouble.     In   the   case  of 


148  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  Michelin  type,  which  is  in  very  general  use,  there  are  four 
points   which   need   careful   attention. 

First,  the  rubber  plug  O  (which,  we  might  mention,  is 
not  absolutely  air-tight  until  the  cap  D  has  been  screwed 
on).  Should  there  be  a  definite  leak,  the  rubber  plug,  its  pin, 
and  its  seating  should  be  cleaned,  a  little  French  chalk  first 
having  been  rubbed  on  the  operator's  hands.  If  the  plug  is 
actually  damaged,  it  should  be  replaced  with  a  new  one.  The 
rubber  disk  F  in  the  bottom  of  the  screw  cap  D  is  intended 
to  provide  against  small  leakages  at  O.  If  it  is  damaged,  it 
should  be  replaced.  If  a  spare  disk  is  not  at  hand,  a  well-fitted 
ring  of  leather  or  cloth  soaked  in  grease  will  prove  effective. 
Sometimes  the  air  may  escape  at  the  rubber  ring  or  washer  G. 
This  is  due  to  the  nut  C  holding  the  center  piece  B  and  form- 
ing a  rubber  joint  between  the  valve  stem  and  the  air  tube, 
not  being  screwed  down  tightly  enough  so  as  to  compress  the 
rubber  ring  G  between  the  center  piece  B  and  the  valve  body 
A.  If  the  rubber  in  the  ring  G  is  perished,  it  should  be  at  once 
replaced.  A  ring  of  leather  or  thread  smeared  with  tallow 
will  do  in  an  emergency.  Sometimes  the  nut  I  may  have 
worked  loose,  which  may  often  cause  an  escape  of  air ;  it  should 
be  screwed  up,  but  not  too  tightly,  or  it  may  split  the  air 
tube.  The  best  way  to  definitely  detect  a  leak  in  the  valve  is 
to  turn  the  wheel  until  the  valve  cap  points  downward,  and 
then  immerse  the  valve  in  a  glass  of  water.  If  air  bubbles 
rise,  the  valve  is  leaking.  The  valve  parts  should  be  tightened 
by  hand,  as  they  do  not  require  great  pressure. 

Care  in  seeing  that  the  rubber  cones  and  washers  are  in 
good  condition  and  not  perished,  and  that  no  dirt  or  grit  or 
other  foreign  matter  gets  into  the  valve,  is  all  that  is  necessary 
in  keeping  the  valves  in  order.  On  no  account  should  any  oil 
be  used  near  any  tire  valve.  It  attracts  dirt  and  grit,  and 
very  soon  perishes  the  rubber  and  causes  leaks. 

10.    The  Actuating  Levers — A  typical  set  of  tire  tools  con- " 
sists  of  the  following  articles : 

Three  levers  for  removing  and  replacing  bead. 


Fig.  6— Clearing  Valve  Hole  or 
Tire  Bolt  Hole. 


Fig.  7— Valve  in  Act  of  Being  Re- 
moved or  Replaced. 


Studded  Band  and  Chain  Non-Skids. 


Weight  of  Car,  2000  Ibs. 
Tread  56" 


36"  Wheels. 


Front 
Axle 

Clearance, 


(i,  -Cyl  incl  er.  4 
Cycle,  Water  Cooled 
Motor.  40  Horse 
Power.  Cylinders 
cast  in  sets  of  three. 
Two  separate  c 

'distinct  Systems  of 
Ignition.  Bosch 

i  High  Tension  Mag- 
neto, Atwater-Kent 
Timer." 


Wheel  Base,  122" 


Bevel  Gear  Drive 
enclosed  ip  Oil-tight 
Case. 


Transmission  and 
Differential  Gear  in 
same  Oil-tight  Case 
Floating  Type 
Axle. 

Gear 

Ratio,          J 
to  1. 


Thomas  Three  Disc 
Clutch,  enclosed  in 
Oil-tight  Case.  I 

'"  Steering  Wheel. 


Spark  and  Throttle. 
Levers  on  top  of 
Steering  Wheel. 


Three  Speed  For- 
ward and  a  Reverse 
Selective  Type  Slid- 
ing Gear  Transmis- 
sion. 


4"  Rear 
Tires  on 

all 
models. 


Double 
•Elliptic 
Spring, 

very  easy  riding 
qualities. 


Chassis    of    Thomas    0    Cylinder,    40    Horse    Power    Flyer 


The  6-40  Thomas  Flyer  Chassis. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


X49 


Forked  manipulator  for  moving  bead  out  of  the  way  when 
removing  or  replacing  valve  or  security  bolts. 

The  manipulator  consists  of  a  forked  lever  A  (Fig.  5)  and 
two  strut  pieces,  one  shown  at  B,  hinged  at  C,  and  with 


Fig.   5. — A  Tire  Manipulator. 

shoulders  D  and  E,  which  bear  against  the  clinch  of  the  rim 
and  the  bead  of  the  tire  respectively.  In  Fig.  5  the  manipu- 
lator has  been  inserted  under  the  bead  of  the  tire. 

Fig.  6  (a  photographic  illustration  on  another  page)  shows 
the  manipulator  after  having  been  inserted  under  the  edge 
of  the  cover,  and  pushed  home  until  the  shoulders  D,  D  have 
found  their  seating  on  the  edge  of  the  rim.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  F,  F  are  the  strut  pieces  hinged  at  C,  while  the  shoulders 
E,  E,  acting  against  the  bead  of  the  outer  cover,  force  it  up- 
wards as  the  lever  handle  is  raised.  The  manipulator  is  now 
in  the  correct  position  for  fitting  the  valve  or  security  bolt, 
and  in  this  illustration  the  "raison  d'etre"  of  the  appliance  will 
be  seen.  The  hinged  portion  C  bears  firmly  against  the  bead 
of  the  opposite  side  of  the  cover,  and  so  prevents  it  from  slip- 
ping down  and  covering  the  hole.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  shoulders  D,  D  obtain  a  firm  purchase  against  the  edge  of 
the  rim,  while  the  shoulders  E,  E  engage  with  the  edge  of  the 
cover,  which  has  been  removed  from  the  rim,  and  holds  it 
absolutely  out  of  the  way,  the  leverage  obtained  being  enor- 
mous. 


150  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Fig.  7  (also  a  photograph)  shows  the  air  valve  in  the  act  of 
being  either  removed  or  replaced.  To  extricate  the  manipula- 
tor, it  is  only  necessary  to  dip  the  end  of  the  lever  A  and  pull 
it  out.  This  manipulator  is  adaptable  to  all  sizes  of  tires. 
For  those  of  105  millimeters  and  upward  the  strut  pieces  are 
reversed. 

Many  other  ingenious  devices  are  also  made  and  sold  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  tire  repairs  and  adjustments,  and 
each  type  has  its  own  points  of  advantage.  The  use  of  suit- 
able tools  for  the  purpose  and  the  proper  application  of  them 
prevents  damage  being  done  to  tires  when  excessive  force  is 
used. 

VALVES. 

Symptoms:  Failure  of  engine  to  start. — Diminished  Power. — Partial 
or  total  loss  of  compression. — Popping. — Misfires. 

Causes — Valves:  Pitted,  or  bearing  surface  warped. — Bent  spindle. 
— Broken  spring. — Weak  spring. — Valve  stuck  through  guide  getting 
clogged  or  spindle  bent. — Too  little  or  too  much  clearance  between 
stem  and  plunger. — Valve  broken. — Dirt  under  seat. — Foreign  matter 
wedged  between  valve  and  seating  and  causing  leakage. — Springs  in 
different  cylinders  of  irregular  tension  (only  in  the  case  of  engines 
with  automatically  operated  inlet  valves). 

Both  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  apt  to  get  sooty  and 
gummy,  especially  if  the  engine  is  over-lubricated  or  over- 
heated. This  will  affect  the  power  of  an  engine  fitted  with 
Automatic  valves  by  making  them  open  sluggishly.  If  about 
a  teaspoonful  of  kerosene  is  squirted  into  each  cylinder  daily, 
and  the  starting  handle  given  a  few  turns,  it  will  have  a  very 
cleansing  effect  both  on  valves  and  piston  rings,  and  will  also 
facilitate  starting. 

Grinding — Even  when  every  care  is  exercised,  the  valves 
become  pitted  or  worn  in  process  of  time,  with  the  result  that 
the  compression  is  affected,  and  the  engine  loses  power. 
Grinding  is  the  remedy. 

To  grind  a  valve,  remove  the  cross  key  which  passes  through 
its  stem,  having  first  raised  the  hollow  cup  washer,  which 
prevents  the  cross  key  from  slipping.  This  is  best  done  by 
the  aid  of  a  valve  spring  lifter,  many  types  of  which  are  on 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  151 

the  market.  Then  take  off  the  spring  and  push  the  stem  up- 
ward till  the  head  emerges  through  the  valve  cover  opening. 

Much  difficulty  is  often  experienced  in  removing  or  re- 
placing a  valve  spring,  owing  to  the  necessity  for  compres- 
sing the  spring  when  the  cotter,  which  fills  the  oblong  slot  in 
the  valve  stem,  is  being  put  into  position.  A  very  simple  way 
to  get  over  this  trouble  is  to  compress  the  spring  in  a.  vise 
before  replacing  it,  and  then  secure  it  in  the  position  assumed 
by  means  of  a  thin  wire.  The  spring  can  then  be  easily  re- 
placed, and  when  the  cross  piece  is  in  place  the  wire  can  be  cut 
and  the  spring  will  assume  its  normal  position. 

Having  removed  the  valve,  smear  the  seating — which  is 
usually  part  of  the  cylinder  itself — with  a  mixture  of  oil  and 
emery  powder,  or  corundum  powder,  or  corn  emery.  Then 
replace  the  valve  on  its  seat.  Having  plugged  up  the  opening 
to  the  combustion  chamber  with  cotton-wool  or  waste  to  pre- 
vent the  emery  getting  in  and  scoring  the  cylinder,  proceed  to 
grind  the  valve  on  to  its  seating.  Specially  made  grinding- 
in  tools  can  be  purchased  for  the  purpose,  but  an  ordinary 
screwdriver  will  do.  The  operation  is  performed  by  oscillat- 
ing the  valve  on  its  seat,  at  the  same  time  lifting  it  occasionally 
from  its  seat  so  that  it  sits  down  in  a  different  position.  It 
must  be  repeated  until  a  true  face  fit  is  obtained,  and  is  com- 
plete when  a  clear  white  line  is  shown  of  even  width  around 
the  valve  seat  and  the  valve  head. 

Then  remove  the  valve  and  wash  out  all  the  emery  paste 
from  the  entrance  to  the  combustion  chamber.  Next  remove 
the  cotton,  and  replace  the  valve,  having  first  thoroughly 
cleaned  the  stem  and  washed  it  in  gasolene.  If  the  stem  is 
dirty,  rough,  or  a  very  tight  fit,  polish  it  with  fine  emery  cloth 
to  prevent  all  danger  of  its  sticking  in  the  guide.  See  also  that 
the  guide  is  clean  and  lubricated.  A  new  valve  must  be  sim- 
ilarly faced  to  its  seat  or  it  will  not  be  compression-tight. 

If  there  is  not  any  very  great  improvement  in  the  compres- 
sion just  at  first,  the  motorist  must  not  be  disappointed.  It 
takes  some  little  time  before  a  newly-ground  valve  becomes 
perfectly  gas-tight. 


152  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

After  successive  grindings,  it  is  sometimes  found  that  the 
valves  sit  so  far  down  on  their  seatings  that  the  stems  make 
firm  contact  with  the  plungers  which  left  them,  and  thus  pre- 
vent the  valves  from  properly  closing.  To  remedy  this,  suffi- 
cient should  be  ground  off  the  end  of  the  valve  stem  to  pre- 
vent it  coming  into  contact  with  the  top  of  the  plunger  when 
the  latter  is  at  the  lowest  point.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  owing  to  the  expansion  caused  by  the  heat,  the  valve 
stem  may  clear  the  plunger  when  cold,  but  touch  it  when  the 
engine  is  working.  Therefore,  this  adjustment  should  be  made 
when  the  engine  is  hot,  and,  where  adjustable  plungers  are 
used,  it  is  best  to  make  the  adjustment  in  the  plunger  rather 
than  to  grind  the  end  of  the  valve  stem.  When  the  valve  is 
seated,  the  plunger  at  the  bottom  of  its  stroke  and  the  engine 
hot,  there  should  just  be  daylight  between  the  top  of  the 
plunger  and  the  bottom  of  the  valve  stem.  In  multi-cylindered 
engines  it  is  important  that  the  distance  between  plunger  head 
and  the  bottom  of  valve  stem  should  be  the  same  for  all  cylin- 
ders both  for  exhaust  and  inlet  valves.  In  cases  where  the  stem 
is  too  short  and  the  exhaust  valve  does  not  open  enough,  thus 
causing  back  pressure,  a  new  valve  should  be  fitted. 

Should  the  cotter  holding  the  spring  of  the  valve  work  out 
of  place,  the  spring  will  cease  to  act,  and  the  valve  will  be- 
come inoperative.  The  piston  will  then  cease  to  draw  in  its 
charge  of  gas.  If  the  spring  is  too  weak,  the  valve  will  return 
to  its  seating  sluggishly,  thus  allowing  burnt  gases  to  be 
sucked  back  on  the  next  suction  stroke,  and  affecting  the  pow- 
er of  the  engine.  A  new  spring  is  the  remedy.  Overheating 
or  long  usage  will  affect  the  temper  of  the  spring  and  weaken 
it.  This  trouble  may  be  tested  for  by  placing  the  end  of  a 
turnscrew  between  the  upper  coils  of  the  spring  and  exerting 
a  downward  pull  on  same.  If  the  motor  picks  up  speed,  it 
may  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  spring  has  lost  its 
correct  tension. 

Too  great  a  clearance  between  the  valve  stem  and  its  plunger 
will  cause  insufficient  lift  and  account  for  sluggish  running 
and  overheating.  Remedy,  place  a  thin  cap  on  the  top  of  thfc 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  153 

plunger  rod,  that  is,  if  it  is  not  already  provided  with  a  screw 
cap  to  take  up  the  wear.  A  worm  cam  or  plunger  roller  will 
also  effect  the  opening  of  the  valve ;  a  1-16  inch  reduction  will 
be  sufficient  to  appreciably  alter  the  time  of  opening  and  its 
duration ;  the  effect  will  be  to  produce  overheating  and  slug- 
gish running.  Some  types  of  cams  are  more  prone  to  rapid 
wear  than  others ;  the  ideal  one  is  that  which  has  its  profile 
so  shaped  as  to  lift  the  valve  without  excessive  side  thrust  on 
the  tappet  head  or  roller,  and  so  "backed  off"  as  to  insure  a 
prompt  closing  without  undue  clatter  or  shock  to  the  valve 
head.  The  length  of  the  cam's  lifting  surface  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  insure  the  valve  being  held  fully  open  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  exhaust  stroke.  In  modern  engines  the  wear 
on  the  cam  and  roller  is  very  slight  indeed. 

A  broken  exhaust  or  inlet  valve  will  instantly  lead  to  a 
total  loss  of  compression  in  the  cylinder.  The  engine  should 
be  stopped  at  once,  or  the  broken  parts  may  get  jammed  in 
the  combustion  chamber  and  do  damage.  The  bits  should  be 
carefully  removed.  If  difficulty  is  experienced  a  bent  wire 
is  useful.  Small  particles  can  be  got  up  with  the  aid  of  some 
sticky  material,  such  as  pitch  or  cobbler's  wax,  smeared  on  to 
the  end  of  the  wire. 

In  the  case  of  the  automatically  operated  inlet  valve,  where 
the  suction  in  the  cylinder  opens  the  valve  against  the  pres- 
sure of  a  spring — a  method  now  practically  discarded  except 
in  the  case  of  some  motorcycle  engines — no  very  definite  rule 
can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  exact  resistance  of  the  spring  suited 
for  every  form  of  valve.  Generally  speaking,  the  practice  is 
to  use  a  spring  which  errs  on  the  heavy  or  strong  side.  Such 
a  spring  will  prove  a  trifle  sluggish  on  starting  the  engine, 
but  will  function  correctly  when  the  speed  has  been  accelerat- 
ed. Compared  with  a  slack  or  light  inlet  spring,  the  mixture 
volume  will  remain  more  constant,  as  there  will  be  no  puffing 
back  at  the  carbureter. 

In  multi-cylinder  engines,  if  the  springs  of  the  automati- 
cally-operated inlet  valves  are  not  of  equal  tension  the  power 
of  the  engine  will  be  affected.  To  test  the  tension,  remove  the 


154  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

valves,  and  taking1  one  in  each  hand,  press  the  spindles  against 
each  other.  If  the  valves  open  simultaneously  the  springs 
have  an  equal  tension.  A  slight  difference  is  not  of  great  con- 
sequence. 

The  springs  may  have  lost  their  elasticity,  due  to  excessive 
heat.  They  should  then  be  tested  against  a  new  spring. 

As  to  the  best  time  for  opening  and  closing  the  valves,  prac- 
tice varies,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  table  given  in  the 
article  on  "Timing"  in  letter  T.  In  this  matter  so  much  de- 
pends on  design — for  example,  valve  area,  placing  of  valves, 
and  nature  of  the  valve  pockets,  together  with  the  cubical 
capacity  of  the  cylinder,  compression  degree,  and  intended 
normal  engine  speed — that  it  is  only  possible  to  generalize. 

WATER  CIRCULATION. 

Symptoms:      Overheating. — Sluggish   running. — Steam. 

Causes:  Pump. — Defective. — Broken. — Spindle  locked  or  friction- 
wheel  not  working  or  slipping. — Chain  broken  or  detached  (in  chain 
drive). — Worn  washers,  valves,  or  bearings. — Grease  in  pump. — Frozen 
pump. 

Pipes:     Choked. — Broken. — Leaking. — Air-bound  or  Steam-bound. 

Radiator:  Grease  or  other  deposit — Mud  in  gills. — Improper  pro- 
portion between  the  amount  of  water  and  the  cooling  surface  of 
radiator. 

Fan:     Belt  slipping  or  breaking. 

Water  Jacket:    Leaks. — Deposit 

Any  failure  in  the  water  circulation,  unless  detected  at 
once,  will  cause  overheating,  the  results  of  which  may  prove 
very  serious.  For  this  reason  a  careful  watch  should  be  kept 
on  the  water  pressure  gauge ;  but  if  that  useful  index  is  not 
fitted,  the  engine  and  pipes  should  be  felt  by  hand.  Should 
the  car  begin  to  run  sluggishly  the  test  tap  should  be  opened 
where  such  is  fitted,  or  some  means  found  of  discovering  if 
the  usual  volume  of  water  is  circulating.  Steam  rising  from 
the  vent-hole  in  tank  or  radiators  is  a  sign  that  the  tempera- 
ture is  getting  .dangerously  high.  That  the  circulation  is  go- 
ing1 on  properly  can  be  generally  seen  by  opening  the  filling 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  155 

cap  on  the  top  of  the  radiator.  In  case  of  failure,  the  following 
are  the  points  to  look  to  for  defects : 

(a)  The  Pump — Should  the  pump  not  be  functioning-  proper- 
ly, it  will  be  comparatively  cool  to  the  touch  as  compared  with 
the  water  jacket  and  pipes.  If  the  drive  is  by  friction-wheel, 
see  that  the  wheel  is  not  slipping.  If  it  is,  slightly  tension 
the  spring  so  as  to  make  the  contact  just  sufficient  to  fully 
overcome  the  vibration  of  the  road.  Over-tightening  only 
brings  a  severe  strain  on  the  pump  bearings,  and  may  render 
the  spindle  useless,  or  destroy  the  ball  races  if  such  be  fitted. 
If  the  leather  on  the  wheel  is  greasy,  carefully  clean  it  and  the 
part  of  the  flywheel  against  which  it  bears  with  gasolene  or 
kerosene.  See  that  the  spindle  has  not  seized  in  its  bearings 
for  lack  of  lubrication.  The  friction-driven  pump  is  now  sel- 
dom fitted. 

If  a  chain  drive,  the  chain  might  break  or  come  off,  which 
is  generally  due  to  undue  slackness.  It  should  be  adjusted 
until  there  is  a  just  perceptible  sag.  If  the  pump  is  gear- 
driven,  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of  trouble,  though  the  key 
or  the  coupling  by  which  it  is  driven  may  shear  or  come  adrift. 

The  drive  being  right,  the  next  point  to  make  sure  of  is 
that  the  internal  economy  of  the  pump  is  in  order. 

Centrifugal  and  cog-wheel  pumps  are  the  two  types  most 
in  use  for  motor  cars.  The  first  requires  a  higher  speed  than 
that  which  is  necessary  for  the  latter.  As  the  centrifugal  pump 
is  merely  a  fan-wheel  revolving  in  an  inclosed  chamber,  there 
is  practically  nothing  to  get  out  of  order,  and  from  this  point 
of  view  it  is  better  than  the  other,  but  its  high  speed  is  trying 
to  the  bearings,  and  it  is  these  that  cause  trouble  with  this 
type  of  pump.  Dirt  may  possibly  get  in,  but  a  thorough 
washing  out  will  remedy  this.  If  grit  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  pump  it  may  wear  the  bearings  and  affect  its  efficiency. 
The  application  of  a  hose  is  generally  effective.  The  bearings 
are  usually  of  the  plain  type,  and  if  in  proper  order  the  friction 
set  up  in  them  is  very  slight.  They  should  be  kept  well 
greased  with  a  grease  pump,  and  if  any  heat  is  noticeable  the 
car  should  not  be  run  till  the  cause  is  ascertained. 


156  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

For  the  efficient  working  of  a  cog-wheel  pump  it  is  neces- 
sary that  there  should  be  but  a  slight  suspicion  of  side  play 
— that  is,  between  the  flanges  of  the  pump  casing  and  the  side 
of  the  cog-wheels.  A  curious  species  of  trouble  in  some  types 
of  this  class  of  pump  is  set  up  by  the  shearing  of  the  pins  or 
keys  fixing  the  wheels  on  the  spindles.  In  modern  practice 
the  drive  between  the  engine  shaft  and  the  pump  spindle  is 
so  arranged  as  to  be  in  sight  and  easily  removable,  so  that 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  seeing  if  the  pump  is  working. 

A  slight  leakage  of  water  is  not  of  much  consequence.  If, 
however,  the  leak  is  bad,  see  that  the  grease  cup  is  thoroughly 
full,  and  screw  the  top  partially  home.  Also  see  that  the  pack- 
ing gland  nut  is  tight.  If  the  packing  wears,  it  will  have  to 
be  replaced.  Tow,  greased  with  tallow,  makes  the  best  pack- 
ing. It  is  well,  when  testing  the  pump,  to  run  the  engine  at 
its  normal  speed,  as  the  velocity  of  the  water  from  the  pump 
to  the  jacket  varies  with  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

(b)  Danger  from  Frost — If  the  pump  freezes  and  the  engine 
is  started  it  will  probably  result  in  the  shearing  of  the  key, 
and  also  damage  to  the  key  way.  A  temporary  roadside  re- 
pair may  be  effected,  but  it  is  really  a  job  for  a  skilled 
mechanic,  as  it  is  essential  that  the  key  should  be  a  perfect  fit 
in  the  key  way  and  boss. 

When  the  temperature  is  below  freezing  point  there  is  the 
danger  of  the  water  freezing  in  the  circulation  system,  which 
often  results  in  cracked  water  jackets  or  burst  pipes. 

Many  motorists  have  had  their  water  jackets,  pipes,  etc., 
ruined  from  this  cause,  and  incurred  great  expense  thereby. 
The  only  safe  remedy  is  to  have  the  garage  heated,  by  means 
of  hot  air,  hot  water,  etc.,  as  in  the  ordinary  conservatory. 
Such  an  installment,  however,  may  entail  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
pense, but  the  difficulty  can  be  got  over  in  a  much  simpler 
and  cheaper  manner  by  using  one  of  the  stoves  which  burn 
a  special  fuel.  In  one  such  stove  used  in  Europe,  the  fuel  is 
in  the  form  of  small  cylinders.  Two  or  three  of  these  are 
placed  in  a  fire  for  a  few  minutes;  they  are  then  put  into  the 
lower  portion  of  the  stove,  and  other  cylinders  piled  on  top. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  157 

A  single  charge  will  last  an  entire  night,  and  the  heat  can  be 
controlled  to  a  nicety  by  varying  the  air  inlet.  The  fuel  only 
smolders,  and  will  not  ignite  gasolene.  In  fact,  gasolene,  it  is 
said,  can  be  poured  over  one  of  these  stoves  without  any  ill 
result.  For  this  reason  the  insurance  companies  permit  their 
use.  Apart  altogether  from  the  danger  of  freezing,  the  use  of 
these  stoves,  by  making  the  atmosphere  comparatively  dry 
and  equable  in  the  motor  house,  is  a  saving  to  the  carriage 
work,  upholstery,  tires,  etc.  This  applies  of  course  to  private 
garages,  public  garages  being  usually  properly  heated. 

When  touring,  however,  or  away  from  home,  a  heated  gar- 
age is  sometimes  hard  to  find,  in  fact  it  is  seldom  available. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  car  should  be  run  into  the 
house  provided  for  it  so  that  the  front  portion  will  occupy  the 
farthest  corner  from  the  entrance,  and  the  water  should  be 
drawn  out  of  the  water  system  as  far  as  possible.  In  letting 
the  water  off,  the  cap  of  the  filling  pipe  should  be  unscrewed. 
The  pipe  leading  from  the  water  jacket  should  be  opened,  and 
also  the  cock  of  the  pipe  leading  from  the  radiator  to  tank. 
If  there  is  a  cock  or  plug  to  the  radiator,  this  should  also  be 
left  open  to  insure  the  last  drop  of  water  draining  away,  and 
also  the  cocks  or  plugs  often  used  to  drain  the  water  jackets. 
It  is  not  sufficient  to  open  a  cock  somewhere  in  the  circulat- 
ing system  without  making  quite  sure  that  the  cock  in  ques- 
tion is  at  the  lowest  point,  for  very  often  cocks  are  fitted 
merely  for  testing  the  circulation,  or  washing  out  purposes, 
and  are  not  in  the  right  position  to  entirely  drain  the  system. 
It  is  sometimes  impossible  to  completely  drain  the  pump,  so 
in  frosty  weather  it  is  well,  before  starting,  to  gently  heat  the 
metal  casing  by  means  of  hot  cloths,  etc.,  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  any  ice  that  might  interfere  with  its  proper  working, 
and  which  sometimes  results  in  the  driving  spindle  shearing 
off.  Should  the  carbureter  be  water-jacketed,  the  freezing 
of  the  water  will,  in  most  cases,  burst  the  jacket. 

In  very  many  cases,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  entirely 
empty  the  water  system,  and  even  a  very  trifling  amount  of 
liquid  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  jacket,  or  in  the  pump,  may 


158  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

cause  serious  damage.  We  have  known  of  a  case  where  a  sandy 
deposit  in  the  bottom  of  the  jacket  has  retained  sufficient 
moisture  to  burst  it.  It  is  possible  also  that  the  taps  may  be 
choked.  For  this  reason  we  should  recommend  the  motorist 
to  pile  all  available  rugs  over  the  engine  bonnet.  This  will 
prevent  freezing  unless  the  frost  is  very  severe.  In  the  latter 
case  the  only  really  safe  method  is  to  use  some  preparation 
calculated  to  entirely  prevent  freezing. 

By  adding  chemicals  to  the  water  the  freezing  point  is 
lowered,  and  if  the  water  were  always  kept  at  a  very  low 
temperature  the  number  of  substances  that  could  be  added 
without  injury  to  the  pipes,  etc.,  would  be  fairly  large,  but 
the  number  is  limited  by  the  fact  that  during  the  working 
of  the  engine  the  temperature  is  raised  to  nearly  boiling  point. 
This  heat  is  quite  sufficient  to  decompose  many  of  the  added 
substances,  setting  free  agents  which  would  attack  and  eat 
away  the  metal  of  the  pipes  and  tanks.  The  safest,  but  most 
expensive,  substance  to  add  to  the  circulating  water  is  glycer- 
ine ;  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  fresh  glycerine  must  be 
occasionally  added  to  make  up  for  the  losses  which  occur 
through  the  glycerine  being  carried  off  with  the  steam.  Cal- 
cium chloride  can  also  be  used  for  the  same  purpose ;  it  is 
cheap,  easily  obtainable,  and  it  is  stated  by  those  who  have 
used  it  to  be  innocuous. 

(c)  The  Pipes  and  Connections — An  air-lock  in  the  pipes 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  diagnose,  in  that  it  frequently  only 
partially  interferes  with  the  water  circulation.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  modern  cars  there  is  little  danger  of  an  air-lock  be- 
ing formed,  but  with  the  older  forms  of  vehicle  with  the  low 
down  radiator  and  a  separate  water  tank  it  may  occur.  If 
an  air-lock  is  suspected  it  is  best  to  open  every  available  water 
or  air  orifice  and  thoroughly  drain  out  all  water  and  fill  up 
again  with  these  openings  only  partially  closed  so  as  to  allow 
the  air  to  escape  as  the  water  comes  in. 

Leaking  or  broken  pipes  can  easily  be  mended  temporarily 
by  connecting  the  fractured  parts  with  a  piece  of  rubber  tub- 
ing, wired  into  position,  and  for  this  purpose  suitable  tubing 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  159 

should  always  be  carried.  Although  a  fairly  good  job  can  be 
made  by  means  of  wiring,  it  is  much  better  to  use  a  band, 
such  as  supplied  by  many  dealers.  A  patented  clip  is  made  of 
a  single  strip  of  copper,  broadened  at  one  end,  which  is  pro- 
vided with  a  slot,  through  which  the  strip  is  passed  and 
wrapped  a  second  time  round  the  rubber  pipe,  the  usual  screw 
and  flynut  drawing  the  ends  tight  and  insuring  a  perfectly 
concentric  grip  of  the  pipe.  The  head  of  the  screw  is  square 
and  bears  against  a  flat  shoulder  on  the  copper  strip,  so  that 
when  once  pushed  in,  the  screw  will:  not  turn  round;  thus 
there  is  no  need  to  hold  the  end  of  the  screw  with  spanner, 
pliers  or  screwdriver  when  turning  the  flynut  home. 

Where  a  long  length  of  flexible  pipe  is  necessary,  the  use  of 
wire-armored  rubber  hose  instead  of  metal  pipes  will  mini- 
mize the  risk  of  breakage  or  leakage.  This  hose  accom- 
modates itself  to  vibration,  and  causes  but  little  strain  on  the 
unions. 

It  is  advisable  also  to  occasionally  renew  such  hose  con- 
nections, especially  if  there  has  been  any  prolonged  over- 
heating of  the  pipes  and  radiator,  as  such  will  rapidly  cause 
the  rubber  to  disintegrate  or  parboil,  the  result  being  that 
particles  will  find  their  way  into  the  passages  and  possibly 
cause  failure  at  the  pump  later.  For  the  same  reason  the 
motorist  should  use  only  the  best  quality  armored  or  un- 
armored  steam  hose,  as  he  prefers. 

In  using  armored  hose,  trouble  is  sometimes  experienced 
with  the  ends  of  the  wire  coil  which  forms  the  armor  around 
the  tube  becoming  loose  and  straggling  away  from  the  tube. 
The  best  way  to  overcome  this  is  to  bend  the  last  turn  of 
the  coil  upon  itself  and  fix  with  a  blob  of  soft  tinsmith's  solder. 

A  leaking  faced  joint  can  be  temporarily  repaired  by  smear- 
ing the  two  faces  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  a  coating  of 
white  lead  before  putting  together;  but  a  "faced"  joint  should 
when  possible  be  treated  as  such,  and  re-faced  by  competent 
hands  when  repair  is  called  for. 

Should  a  pipe  break  about  the  union  which  secures  it  to 
the  cylinder,  a  temporary  repair  may,  in  many  cases,  be  ef- 


160  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

fected  by  binding  thin  rubber  tubing,  such  as  is  used  for 
bicycle  tubes,  round  the  union  and  nut  and  wiring  it  on  to 
the  broken  end  of  the  pipe.  Even  sheet  rubber  can  be  made 
to  do  service,  and  a  strong  rubber  band  is  an  excellent  thing 
for  securing  it  to  the  union  socket.  Of  course  the  weight 
will  have  to  be  taken  off  this  joint  by  means  of  wire  supports 
or  otherwise. 

(d)  The  Radiator — Very  often  the  radiator  is  at  fault,  be- 
ing insufficient  to  cool  the  water.  Deposit  may  get  into  the 
radiator  from  the  pump  or  otherwise,  but  if  water  is  used 
which  is  free  from  lime  and  foreign  matter  of  that  kind  rust 
may  result,  but  very  little  scale.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
water  is  limy  or  chalky  there  is  not  much  rust,  but  a  lot  of 
scale.  Either  can  be  got  rid  of  by  a  thorough  swilling  through 
with  a  strong  solution  of  soda.  The  solution  should  be  left 
in  for  an  hour  or  two  and  then  run  off,  and  if  much  deposit 
comes  away  another  dose  should  be  given.  Rain  water  is 
best,  provided  it  is  put  through  a  strainer.  One  authority 
says  that  he  has  never  found  that  rust  mattered  much.  In 
fact,  he  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  best  thing  to  do 
is  to  let  rust  form  and  not  to  change  the  water  any  time  un- 
less it  gets  thick. 

The  motorist  should  be  careful  when  buying  his  car  to  see 
that  adequate  means  for  dealing  with  so  important  a  matter 
as  flushing  or  cleaning  exist.  A  radiator  without  such  pro- 
vision is  much  akin  to  a  boiler  without  a  manhole  or  mud 
doors.  Needless  to  say,  such  would  not  pass  an  inspector. 
It  is  to  be  recommended  that  the  radiator  be  systematically 
flushed  periodically — say  in  the  case  of  a  much-used  car  every 
month  or  so — but  as  much  depends  on  local  circumstances, 
for  example,  nature  of  the  water,  type  of  radiator,  and  the 
disposition  of  the  same  on  the  car,  only  an  approximate  rule 
can  be  given.  A  honeycomb  radiator  requires  careful  treat- 
ment as  regards  cleaning.  With  some  of  them  it  would  seem 
impossible  to  internally  cleanse  them,  and  when  they  become 
so  furred  as  to  seriously  fail  in  their  work  it  will  be  the 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  161 

cheaper,  and  often  the  only  method,  to  get  a  competent 
mechanic  to  deal  with  the  job. 

It  is  necessary  to  see  that  the  radiator  is  not  choked  on 
the  outside  with  dust  or  mud. 

Leakages  may  usually  be  stopped  by  the  use  of  a  soldering 
bit  with  resin  as  a  flux.  A  useful  combined  solder  and  resin 
is  sold  in  sticks,  and  one  of  these  should  be  carried  on  a  car. 
Any  tinsmith  is  competent  to  staunch  a  leak  or  effect  repair 
to  the  common  form  of  radiator,  but  the  honeycomb  type  re- 
quires most  careful  treatment,  lest  in  tightening  one  tube 
a  whole  series  may  be  made  leaky.  It  is  essentially  special 
work,  and  should  be  referred  to  some  maker  of  motor  fittings. 
For  temporary  repairs  to  leaking  pipes,  or  tubular  radiators, 
a"*useful  remedy  will  be  found  in  mixing  genuine  white  lead 
with  a  dusting  of  litharge  to  the  consistency  of  thin  putty 
and  smearing  the  same  over  the  point  of  leakage,  afterwards 
"serving"  it  with  a  bandage  of  waxed  light  thread,  or  failing 
the  latter,  a  narrow  tape  previously  steeped  in  boiled  oil.  A 
couple  of  strands  of  light  copper  wire  then  applied  will  prevent 
the  bandage  slackening  back. 

One  of  the  special  plugs  used  for  stopping  leaks  should  be 
kept  by  every  motorist  whose  car  is  fitted  with  a  honeycomb 
radiator.  A  very  simple  contrivance  consists  of  two  squares 
of  thin  plate  aluminum  with  sheet  rubber  attached  to  one  side. 
On  the  side  carrying  the  sheet  rubber  there  is  a  little  lug,  and 
one  end  of  a  spiral  spring  is  hooked  on  to  one  of  the  plugs. 
With  the  plug  is  supplied  a  jointed  wire  about  6  inches  long. 
This  is  passed  through  the  defective  tube  in  the  radiator,  and 
the  other  end  of  the  spring  is  looped  on  to  a  hook  in  the  wire. 
The  spring  is  then  pulled  through  the  tube  by  the  aid  of  the 
wire  until  the  end  protrudes  at  the  far  side  of  the  radiator 
when  the  second  plug  is  hooked  on  to  the  other  side  of  the 
spring.  The  tension  of  the  spring  keeps  the  rubber  faces  tight 
up  against  the  faulty  section  of  the  radiator,  and  so  effectively 
stops  the  leak.  The  whole  arrangement  is  simple  and  can  be 
fitted  by  anybody. 

To  minimize  the  risk  of  pipes  and  radiators  getting  choked 


1 62  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

with  a  deposit  of  foreign  matter,  some  owners  use  a  wide- 
spouted  water  can,  with  a  piece  of  Turkish  bath  towel  tightly 
folded  and  jammed  into  the  base  of  the  spout.  This  forms  an 
effective  filter. 

(e)  The  Fan — If  the  belt  slips  the  fan  will  not  revolve  fast 
enough  to  keep  the  water  adequately  cool.    Clean  periodical- 
ly, dress  with  castor  oil,  and  keep  well  adjusted. 

(f)  The  Water  Jacket — A  leakage  or  crack  in  the  water 
jacket  is  not  uncommon,  and  will  affect  its  efficiency.     The 
best  method  of  dealing  with  same  is  to  have  the  casting  re- 
paired by  brazing  or,  preferably,  autogeneous  welding. 

The  water  jackets  should  be  examined  periodically  to  see 
if  any  furring-up  or  corrosion  has  taken  place.  They  might 
be  well  hosed  out  with  a  hose  pipe,  and  a  powerful  stream 
of  water  sent  through  until  it  comes  out  quite  clear  and  free 
from  rust  deposit.  This  should  be  sent  through  from  all  the 
inlets  and  in  the  opposite  direction  through  the  outlets,  the 
position  of  the  cylinders  being  constantly  altered  so  as  to  in- 
sure the  water  thoroughly  swilling  out  all  round  the  valve 
ports  and  corners.  In  extreme  cases  of  furring,  it  may  be 
advisable  to  boil  the  cylinder  for  some  time  in  strong  soda- 
water.  A  gentle  tapping  on  the  outside  of  the  cylinder  with 
a  hammer,  but  not  so  heavily  as  to  cause  any  damage,  will 
then  often  result  in  the  "sediment"  on  the  walls  coming  away. 
In  some  cylinders  the  water  jackets  can  be  got  at  from  the 
top  by  taking  off  the  cover  completely,  and  in  this  case,  a 
steel  instrument,  or  a  rod  with  a  hardened  end,  may  be  used 
to  detach  any  incrustation  which  may  have  formed  round  the 
walls.  Care  must  be  taken  to  insure  that  all  the  small  pieces 
and  loose  grit  and  sediment  are  thoroughly  swilled  out  and 
cleaned  away,  otherwise  they  may  cause  obstruction  in  the 
pump  and  circulating  system,  even  to  the  extent  of  actually 
damaging  the  pump. 

WHEELS  (ROAD). 

Symptoms:  Wheels  out  of  alignment. — Looseness  or  creak  in 
spokes. — Faulty  steering. — Tires  scored  transversely. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  163 

Causes:  Bent  car  axle,  stub  axle  on  which  wheels  revolve,  steer- 
ing link,  or  steering  arms.— Spoke  broken,  cracked,  shrunk,  decayed, 
loose  in  hub.— Bearings  worn  or  loose. — Hub  shaky. — Springs  moving 
fore  and  aft  on  axle. — Axle  moving  endways  on  springs. 

If  the  wheels  incline  outward  at  the  top  it  will  generally 
be  found  that  the  axle  is  bent.  This  trouble  is  dealt  with 
comprehensively  in  the  discussion  under  "Bent  Axle."  If  they 
incline  inward  at  the  top  the  bearings  want  adjusting.  Failure 
in  the  wheels  themselves  is  a  much  more  serious  matter,  for 
they  are  apt  to  collapse  at  a  comer  or  from  a  side-slip  with- 
out the  slightest  warning.  For  this  reason  they  should  be 
subjected  to  frequent  and  close  inspection.  Incipient  cracks 
and  splits  can  generally  be  seen,  but  internal  weaknesses, 
shaky  hubs,  loose  spokes,  and  defective  or  shrunken  wood 
are  very  difficult  to  locate.  The  wheels  should  be  jacked  up 
and  pulled  and  pushed  violently  backward  and  forward.  If 
there  is  lateral  movement  between  the  rims  and  hubs,  or  any- 
thing of  the  nature  of  a  creak,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted 
that  something  is  wrong.  The  tightness  of  the  spokes  can 
be  tested  by  tapping  them  with  a  spanner  or  such  like.  The 
different  note  between  those  that  are  sound  and  those  that 
are  not  will  be  at  once  apparent.  The  best  plan  under  such 
circumstances  is  to  take  the  wheels  at  once  to  a  first-class 
coachbuilder  who  is  accustomed  to  motor  car  work  and  have 
them  examined.  If  there  is  any  doubt  whatever  as  to  the 
repair  proving  a  good  job  it  is  far  better  to  order  new  wheels. 
It  is  simply  suicidal  to  continue  using  faulty  ones. 

Trouble  with  wire  wheels  is  very  easy  to  locate.  A  broken 
or  loose  spoke  is  the  most  usual  failing,  and  the  immediate 
effect  is  to  make  the  rim  untrue.  The  wheel  can  easily  be  trued 
by  fitting  a  new  spoke,  or  re-tensioning  the  loose  ones.  It 
is  very  rare  for  a  faulty  wire  wheel  to  collapse,  as  a  wooden 
wheel  will,  without  definite  warning. 

Needless  to  say,  the  bearings  should  frequently  be  exam- 
ined for  wear.  (See  Bearings.) 

It  is  essential  that  the  wheels  should  be  in  correct  align- 
ment, or  the  steering  will  prove  defective,  and  the  tires  wear 


1 64  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

quickly.  Sometimes,  especially  where  chains  are  used,  the 
back  wheels  will  be  put  out  of  alignment  with  the  front  by 
incorrect  adjustment  of  the  chains  through  the  medium  of  the 
radius  rods.  Correct  adjustment  is  fully  treated  under  Chains. 
This  will  cause  the  car  to  run  sideways  and  put  considerable 
strain  on  tires,  springs,  and  steering  mechanism.  It  can  be 
remedied  by  a  readjustment  of  the  radius  rods,  or,  as  they 
are  sometimes  termed,  chain  stays.  In  the  case  of  the  Daim- 
ler car,  with  aluminum  chain  cases,  there  is  an  eccentric  ad- 
justment. It  is  best  to  ascertain  that  the  back  axle  is  square 
with  the  frame  by  careful  measurement  to  the  front  of  the 
chassis  on  each  side,  and  determining  that  the  distances  are 
the  same. 

Another  difficulty  which  sometimes  arises,  and  which  puts 
the  back  and  front  pairs  of  wheels  out  of  alignment  with 
each  other,  is  the  slipping  sideways  of  the  springs  on  the 
axle  or  axles.  This  cannot  happen  in  those  cases,  found  in 
the  best  practice,  where  spring  plates  are  forged  solid  with 
the  axle  and  the  spring  straps  pass  through  holes  in  the  plates. 
But  sometimes  the  spring  plates  are  strapped  to  the  square 
axle  by  means  of  the  same  straps  which  hold  the  springs.  In 
such  cases,  on  the  nuts  becoming  loose  or  the  straps  stretched, 
the  springs  may  move  bodily  with  the  straps  and  plates  along 
the  axle,  thus  putting  the  wheels  out  of  alignment. 

The  distance  they  have  moved  is  generally  indicated  by 
the  rubbing  away  of  the  paint  and  varnish.  The  nuts  should 
be  slightly  untightened,  and  the  spring,  plate,  and  straps 
driven  back  into  position  by  means  of  a  hard  wood  block  and 
a  heavy  hammer.  The  nuts  should  then  be  carefully  tight- 
ened up  and  locked.  If  Ibe  trouble  continues  to  occur,  a 
simple  remedy  is  to  drill  a  couple  of  quarter-inch  holes  in  the 
.top  of  the  solid  axle  adjacent  to  the  sides  of  the  plates — one 
on  each  side — and  drive  in  a  tapered  steel  pin  which  will  pre- 
vent the  end  movement  of  the  spring  plate  on  the  axle. 

Sometimes  trouble  arises  due  to  the  spring  moving  fore- 
and-aft  on  the  axle  or  spring  plate.  This  is  also  due  to  the 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  165 

straps  stretching,  or  the  nuts  slacking  back,  or  to  a  violent 
blow,  as  in  an  end-on  collision. 

In  such  cases  the  nuts  should  be  slacked  back  and  the 
axle  driven,  by  means  of  a  hard  wood  block  and  a  heavy 
hammer,  in  the  required  direction,  and  then  tightened  up 
again.  During  the  operation  the  car  should  be  on  a  level 
place  and  unladen.  The  distances  from  the  front  dumb-iron 
or  the  front  spring  hanger  to  the  axle  should  be  measured  on 
each  side  and  should  coincide. 

A  bent  axle,  as  is  suggested  under  Bent  Axle  hereinbefore, 
may  put  them  out  of  alignment,  but  it  is  usually  due  to  the 
steering  arms  or  steering  link  connecting  them  getting  bent 
and  shortened  from  contact  with  road  obstacles.  Very 
often  by  standing  some  distance  behind  or  before  the  car, 
preferably  when  it  is  in  motion,  the  defect  can  be  distin- 
guished by  the  eye.  The  best  test,  however,  is  to  get  a  straight 
edge  and  check  the  alignment  of  the  back  and  front  wheels 
as  regards  each  other.  This  can  best  be  done  with  the  tires 
deflated  so  that  the  straight  edge  rests  against  the  rim  of  the 
wheel  and  always  parallel  with  the  ground.  The  next  point 
to  make  sure  of  is  whether  the  two  front  wheels  are  absolutely 
parallel  to  each  other.  With  a  tape  measure  check  the  dis- 
tance from  rim  edge  to  rim  edge  of  the  front  portion  of  the 
two  wheels,  and  then  to  the  back  portions.  This  test  will 
only  give  true  results  if  carried  out  when  the  steering  wheels 
are  set  for  the  car  to  run  straight  forward.  If  there  is  any 
difference  it  will  prove  that  the  wheels  are  not  parallel.  Ad- 
justing the  steering  link  may  make  matters  right,  but  the 
trouble  may  be  due  to  a  bent  steering  arm,  in  which  case  it  is 
very  likely  that  it  will  take  some  little  skill  to  deteci. 
As  already  mentioned,  a  bent  axle  will  affect  the  align- 
ment. The  stub  axles,  about  which  the  wheels  revolve, 
may  also  be  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  many  cars  the  stub  axles  are  deflected 
downward  to  enable  dished  wheels  to  be  used,  so  that  the 
distance  between  the  tops  of  the  rims  and  the  bottoms  of  the 
rims  will  not  correspond.  Should  the  stub  axles  be  further 


166  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

bent  upward  or  downward,  however,  the  variation  in  angle 
of  the  two  wheels  will  easily  be  seen.  If  at  all  possible,  the 
work  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  -an  expert. 

FREEZING  OF  WATER  COOLERS. 

Every  driver  of  a  water-cooled  car  who  leaves  it  unpro- 
tected for  any  considerable  length  of  time  in  zero  weather  with 
the  engine  "dead,"  is  bound  to  have  more  or  less  trouble.  So 
long  as  the  engine  is  left  running,  heat  enough  will  be  gener- 
ated to  keep  the  water  from  freezing,  but  this  is  an  expensive 
remedy.  When  the  engine  is  stopped,  as  economy  dictates, 
the  heat  is  shut  off,  the  water  in  the  cooler  becomes  chilled 
and  finally  freezes.  Then  the  motorist  must  thaw  it  by  the 
application  of  hot  rags,  or  similar  means  before  he  can  resume 
his  journey.  This  is  a  long,  tiresome,  and  not  over-pleasant 
job,  especially  on  a  cold,  blustery  day. 

There  are  five  mixtures  which  may  be  used  in  the  water 
cooler,  all  of  which  will  effectively  prevent  freezing.  The 
trouble  is,  that  four  of  them  have  to  be  graduated  in  strength 
to  meet  the  degree  of  cold  which  they  are  to  overcome,  while 
the  fifth,  although  the  cheapest  and  simplest,  and  probably 
fully  as  effective  as  the  others,  is  highly  destructive  to  the 
metal  parts  of  the  radiator.  These  non-freezing  agents  are: 
alcohol  and  water;  calcium  chloride  and  water;  glycerine  and 
water ;  alcohol  and  glycerine ;  and  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride, 
or  common  salt.  These  various  mixtures  are  popular  among 
motorists  in  the  order  named.  The  salt  solution  would  stand 
at  the  top  of  the  list  were  it  not  for  its  destructive  effects. 

Alcohol  Solution :  •  This  is  usually  preferred  because  it  is 
clean,  does  not  damage  the  metal  of  the  waterjackets  or  radia- 
tor, and  has  no  deleterious  effect  upon  the  rubber  hose  con- 
nections. The  chief  drawback  to  the  use  of  an  alcohol  solution 
is  that  it  evaporates  quickly  and  then  of  course  the  residue 
freezes.  The  only  way  to  guard  against  this  is  to  test  the 
solution  frequently,  and  keep  it  at  its  highest  point  of  efficiency. 
Cost  is  an  item  to  be  considered  and  it  will  be  found  that 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  167 

either  wood  or  denatured  alcohol,  both  of  which  retail  at  about 
25  cents  a  quart,  is  as  satisfactory  as  test  alcohol,  which  sells 
at  80  cents  a  quart.  The  capacity  of  radiators  differs,  but  the 
average  is  between  three  and  four  gallons. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  any  hard  and  fast  rule  for  the  mixing 
of  alcohol  and  water.  Climatic  conditions  and  other  things 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  although  the  freezing  point 
remains  always  the  same.  The  following  table  of  percentages 
of  alcohol  to  water  will  be  found  satisfactory  for  the  tem- 
peratures given,  the  calculations  being  based  on  the  Fahren- 
heit system : 

Approximate  Percentage  of  Freezing  Amount  of  alcohol 

temperature  alcohol  to  use  point  to  use  in  3-gal. 

radiator 

20  above  .15  15  above  It  quarts 

10  above  .20  5  above  2§  quarts 

Zero  .30  9  below  3i  quarts 

10  below  .35  15  below  4|  quarts 

25  below  .45  28  below  5|  quarts 

To  make  clear  the  meaning  of  these  figures,  taking  for 
example  the  first  figures,  15  under  the  heading  of  percentage 
in  water,  would  mean  that  fifteen  parts  of  alcohol  should  be 
mixed  with  eighty-five  parts  of  water.  This  would  prevent 
freezing  at  temperatures  as  low  as  15  degrees  above  zero.  The 
last  figures  would  mean  that  forty-five  parts  of  alcohol  with 
fifty-five  parts  of  water  would  insure  the  solution  against 
freezing  at  28  degrees  below  zero.  In  general  the  20  per  cent 
solution  will  be  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  occasions.  In  many 
cases  one  filling  of  the  radiator  with  an  alcohol  solution  will 
last  throughout  the  entire  winter;  but  should  any  loss  of 
radiator  supply  occur  it  should  be  replaced  with  equal  parts 
of  alcohol  and  water. 

Alcohol  and  Glycerine:  No  chemical  action  follows  the 
mixing  of  alcohol  and  glycerine,  and  if  equal  parts  of  these 
are  used  an  anti-freezing  solution  that  combines  the  best 
qualities  of  both  is  secured.  Since  either  alcohol  or  glycerine 
added  to  water  will  lower  the  freezing  point,  it  has  been  found 
that  combined  they  would  do  the  same  thing,  each  in  its 
proportion  to  the  water  present.  They  form  no  chemical  com- 


168  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

binations,  but  are  merely  mechanical  mixtures.  Assuming 
that  the  wood  alcohol  is  to  be  preferred  because  it  is  less 
liable  to  choke  up  the  constricted  passageway  or  attack  the 
hose  connections,  and  outside  these  evils,  which  are  character- 
istic of  a  glycerine  and  water  solution,  it  is  a  most  desirable 
and  substantial  mixture ;  then  it  is  well  to  consider  the  ad- 
visability of  reducing  the  quantity  of  glycerine  and  substituting 
alcohol  instead.  By  the  use  of  both  alcohol  and  glycerine  the 
total  proportion  of  water  can  be  increased  and  this  is  a  step 
in  the  right  direction  as  the  cost  is  decreased  and  the  stability 
of  the  mixture  increased.  Combinations  of  alcohol,  glycerine 
and  water  have  given  very  satisfactory  service.  The  following 
combinations  of  half  alcohol,  half  glycerine  and  water  are 
most  popular; 


Approximate 

Percentage   of 

Freezing 

Amount   of    mix- 

temperature 

mixture  of  equal 

point 

ture    of    equal 

parts   alcohol 

parts    alcohol    and 

and  glycerine 

glycerine    to    put 

to  use 

in  3-gal.  radiator 

20  above 

.20 

15  above 

2|  quarts 

10  above 

.25 

8  above 

3    quarts 

Zero 

.30 

5  below 

3|  quarts 

10  below 

.35 

15  below 

4i  quarts 

20  below 

.45 

25  below 

5§  quarts 

One  thing  in  favor  of  this  combination  is  that  it  lasts  longer 
than  alcohol  alone  as  it  does  not  evaporate  readily,  and  the 
cost  is  therefore  materially  reduced,  despite  the  fact  that 
glycerine  costs  $1  a  quart. 

Glycerine:  There  is  much  to  be  said  for  and  against  this 
preparation  as  a  non-freezing  agent  when  used  in  its  crude 
form.  It  does  not  evaporate  and  this  point  is  in  its  favor,  as, 
after  the  solution  has  been  made  up,  it  will  not  need  further 
attention.  This  is  in  theory,  of  course ;  in  practice  it  will  be 
found  that  frequent  tests  of  the  solution  are  necessary  to  keep 
it  in  effective  condition.  Glycerine  is  an  effective  cooling  agent 
and  as  it  will  not  crystalize  in  the  water-jackets  it  is  prefer- 
able in  this  respect  to  calcium  chloride.  As  with  the  other 
preparations,  there  are  several  solutions  of  glycerine  and  water 
for  different  temperatures,  which  are  as  follows : 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  169 

Approximate  Percentage   of  Freezing  Amount  of  glycer- 

temperature  glycerine  to  use                         point  ine    to    use   in 

3-gal.  radiator 

20  above  .30  15  above  3g  quarts 

10  above  .40  5  above  4|  quarts 

Zero  .50  2  below  6    quarts 

10  below  .00  12  below  7£  quarts 

These  solutions  have  been  known  to  work  very  well  indeed, 
although  it  is  true  that  glycerine  does  affect  the  rubber  hose 
connections  but  not  so  rapidly  as  to  become  over-troublesome. 
In  using  the  glycerine  solution  care  should  be  taken  to 
thoroughly  cleanse  the  jackets  of  any  residue  of  crystals  from 
calcium  solutions  if  these  have  been  previously  used,  as  this 
residue  will  thicken  and  clog  the  glycerine  solution  and  render 
it  partially  ineffective.  Solutions  of  glycerine  will  thicken  up 
when  subject  to  low  temperature  but  will  not  solidify,  and 
where  there  is  no  solidification,  there  is  no  disruption  of  the 
piping  of  the  radiator  or  of  the  jackets  of  the  cylinders.  The 
slush  formation  of  a  glycerine  solution  passes  through  a  water 
pump  with  apparent  ease,  and  as  this  is  probably  the  most 
constricted  point  in  the  system,  the  circulation  is  not  notice- 
ably impaired.  If  a  system  gets  hot  with  a  solution  of  this 
kind  it  is  the  water  that  boils  off  and  to  replace  it  is  all  that 
has  to  be  done,  for  about  three  months  at  a  time.  Should  the 
solution,  after  a  time,  lose  all  semblance  of  its  original  balance, 
to  start  over  again  with  a  new  solution  is  the  wisest  course  to 
follow  if  one  would  be  on  the  safe  side. 

Calcium  Chloride:  This  is  probably  one  of  the  most  effec- 
tive, and,  aside  from  common  salt,  cheapest  of  non-freezing 
materials.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  a  chemically  pure 
article  be  used  if  an  excessive  corroding  and  destruction  of 
the  metal  with  which  it  comes  into  contact  is  to  be  avoided. 
The  crude  calcium  chloride  may  be  had  as  low  as  8  cents  a 
pound,  but  in  the  end  it  is  much  more  expensive  and  unsatis- 
factory than  the  pure  article  which  costs  25  cents  or  more.  It 
has  been  proven  that  a  solution  made  by  adding  15  pounds  of 
pure  calcium  chloride  to  the  three  gallons  of  water  in  the 
radiator  will  prevent  freezing,  even  if  the  temperature  falls  to 
39  below  zero.  It  is  probable  that  for  ordinary  winter  condi- 


170 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


tions  anywhere  in  the  temperate  part  of  the  United  States 
three  pounds  per  gallon  will  be  ample.  In  this  connection 
Motor  Age  says: 

"The  best  way  is  to  make  what  is  called  a  saturated  solu- 
tion, then  add  water  to  it  until  the  required  mixture  is  obtained. 
To  make  a  saturated  solution,  mix  with  a  quantity  of  water, 
warmed  to  60  degrees  Fahrenheit,  all  the  calcium  chloride  the 
water  will  dissolve.  If  chemically  pure  calcium  chloride  is 
used  no  trouble  will  result,  but  chloride  of  lime,  CaOCL2, 
often  sold  as  pure  calcium  chloride,  should  not  be  used.  It  has 
been  advised  that  a  handful  of  lime  be  added  to  this  solution  to 


Two   Forms   of   Radiator  Drainers. 

render  it  alkaline.  This  is  done  to  prevent  an  acidic  action  of 
the  solution  on  the  metals  and  its  consequent  setting  up  of 
electrolytic  action." 

One  great  trouble  with  this  agent  is  that  it  is  apt  to  crystal- 
ize  in  the  water  jacket,  and  the  danger  of  this  is  obvious. 

Sodium  Chloride:  A  solution  of  common  salt  is  the  cheap- 
est of  all  non-freezers,  and  is  effective  down  to  the  zero  mark. 
As  radiators  are  expensive,  anything  which  hastens  their 
destruction  is  objectionable,  and  this  is  what  salt  does.  It 
sets  up  an  electrolytic  action  which  seriously  affects  the  metal 
and  in  time  destroys  it  completely.  Still,  its  use  may  be  advo- 
cated in  an  emergency,  as  when  a  motorist  is  caught  out  in  a 
freezing  snap  and  cannot  get  alcohol  or  glycerine.  But,  in  a 
case  of  this  kind  the  radiator  should  be  washed  out  thoroughly 
immediately  on  return  to  the  garage,  and  allowed  to  dry  before 
it  is  refilled.  Look  it  over  closely  before  putting  in  a  new 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


171 


supply  of  water  and  if  any  white  spots  are  discernible  give  it 
another  washing. 

Just  a  word  of  caution:  Unless  your  garage  is  warmed, 
don't  let  plain  water  stand  in  the  radiator  in  cold  weather.  If 
you  are  not  using  some  non-freezing  compound,  drain  the 
water  off  thoroughly  every  time  the  machine  is  housed. 

STARTING  ON  THE  SWITCH. 

It  is  the  ambition  of  every  motorist  to  be  able  to  start  his 
car  without  cranking.  In  the  one-  and  two-cylinder  machines 
it  might  as  well  be  understood  at  the  start  that  this  is  an 


Plug   Substitutes   for   Ignition    Switch. 

impossibility.  "They  are  not  built  that  way."  It  is  not  always 
possible  in  the  four-cylinder  cars,  and  sometimes  even  the  six- 
cylinder  outfits  refuse  to  respond  to  the  switch.  There  is  less 
danger,  however,  of  a  balk  with  six  cylinders  than  with  four, 
as  the  greater  the  number  of  cylinders,  the  more  chance  there 
is  that  at  least  one  of  them  will  be  in  position  to  catch  the 
spark. 


172 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


Where  the  Trouble  Lies:  Assuming  the  motor  is  a  four- 
cylinder,  four-cycle  form,  we  first  determine  the  positions  the 
pistons  will  assume  when  the  spark  is  interrupted.  Taking  the 
cylinders  in  firing  order,  we  find  that  No.  1  is  filled  with  ex- 
plosive mixture,  and  the  piston  is  partly  down  in  what  would 
correspond  to  the  expansion  stroke  had  the  charge  been  fired. 
No.  2  cylinder,  with  a  crank  opposite  that  of  No.  1,  is  also 
filled  with  explosive  gas  and  the  piston  is  part  way  up  in  its 
compression  stroke.  These  cylinders  may  be  considered  gas 
tight  as  the  valves  are  closed.  Cylinder  No.  3  is  being  filled 


Starting   Motor   from   Driver's   Seat. 

with  gas  from  the  carbureter  as  the  piston  is  going  down  for 
the  suction  stroke  and  the  inlet  valve  is  open.  No.  4  cylinder 
is  being  cleared  of  its  contents,  and  the  exhaust  valve  is  open, 
the  piston  going  up. 

Making  analysis,  it  will  be  evident  two  of  the  four  cylinders 
are  open  to  the  atmosphere,  because  the  valves  are  open  and 
consequently  under  no  pressure,  but  the  other  cylinders  are 
closed  and  each  contains  the  same  amount  of  gas.  The  pres- 
sures in  the  two  closed  cylinders  will  be  equal  when  the  pistons 
are  the  same  distance  from  the  top,  and  as  the  cranks  of  these 
cylinders  are  opposite,  this  condition  exists  only  when  the 
cranks  are  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinders  and  both 
pistons  practically  on  the  same  level.  When  stopping,  if  the 
momentum  of  the  motor  is  overcome  when  the  cranks  are  at 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  173 

any  other  position,  the  greater  pressure  in  one  cylinder  will 
cause  the  motor  to  oscillate  back  and  forth  until  it  loses  motion 
close  to  the  position  of  equilibrium  mentioned.  This  deduc- 
tion is  made,  assuming  that  the  valves,  pistons,  etc.,  are  fairly 
tight  and  the  friction  of  the  engine  is  not  too  great. 

After  the  motor  has  stopped,  with  the  pistons  in  the  positions 
shown,  let  us  ascertain  what  the  result  will  be  if  the  switch  is 
thrown  to  the  battery  and  the  ignition  circuit  completed.  If 
the  spark  lever  is  advanced  on  the  segment  so  the  timer  makes 
contact  90  degrees  early,  the  gas  in  the  cylinder  under  com- 
pression, will  explode  and  the  motor  will  turn  backward.  Close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  piston  stroke,  the  burnt  gas  will  be  re- 
leased by  the  opening  of  the  inlet  valve  instead  of  the  exhaust, 
and  a  "puff  back"through  the  vaporizer  will  result.  If  suffi- 
cient start  had  been  given  the  motor  it  might  fire  three  or  four 
times,  running  backward.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  time  is 
retarded  to  the  point  where  the  spark  will  take  place  in  the 
cylinder,  whose  piston  is  half  way  down  its  stroke,  for  example, 
cylinder  No.  1,  the  resulting  expansion  will  turn  the  engine 
over;  the  following  piston,  that  in  cylinder  2,  will  be  carried 
to  the  top  of  its  compression  stroke  and  fired,  and  the  cycle 
will  be  repeated  through  the  remaining  two  cylinders.  As 
soon  as  the  engine  is  started  the  spark  would  be  advanced  to 
the  running  position. 

The  First  Essential:  It  will  be  evident  the  first  essential 
is  that  the  spark  be  made  in  the  cylinder  which  is  the  next  to 
fire,  even  after  the  piston  has  gone  part  of  the  way  on  the  down 
stroke,  corresponding  to  the  movement  produced  by  expansion 
of  the  exploded  charge  under  normal  running  conditions.  A 
condition  equally  important  is  that  the  mixture  contained  in 
the  cylinder  be  of  such  proportions  as  to  fire  with  sufficient 
force  to  throw  the  motor  over  the  following  dead  center; 
otherwise  it  will  back  before  the  second  piston  is  in  proper 
position  to  receive  the  explosive  force. 

The  conditions  that  determine  the  first  explosion  are  good 
mixture,  spark  plug  position,  and  timer  construction  and  set- 
ting. The  carbureter  should  be  first  examined  to  see  that  a 


174  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

strong  mixture  is  delivered  at  low  speeds,  but  in  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  remembered  that  a  mixture  too  rich  will  not 
ignite  any  better  than  one  that  is  poor.  If  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  length  of  time,  any  mixture  will  deteriorate,  one  reason 
being  stratification  of  the  charge,  in  which  the  heavier  portions 
of  the  gas  settle  to  the  bottom.  Again  where  the  scavenging 
action  is  not  positive,  a  proportion  of  the  burnt  gases  is  retained 
in  the  cylinders,  and  after  standing,  the  fresh  gases  are  diluted 
by  this  residuum.  If  the  motor  stands  too  long  idle,  condensa- 
tion of  the  gasolene  will  take  place  and  the  mixture  be  weak- 
ened in  proportion. 

Position  of  Spark  Plug:  The  position  of  the  spark  plug  in 
the  cylinder  has  some  influence  in  determining  the  length  of 
time  a  motor  can  be  left  standing  and  yet  be  started  upon  the 
spark.  The  pressure  of  gas  in  the  cylinder  at  the  time  of 
ignition  has  much  to  do  with  the  pressure  developed,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  when  any  degree  of  compression 
has  been  retained  by  the  cylinder  fired  first,  the  chances  are 
that  the  cylinder  then  compressing  has  also  retained  an  equal 
amount  of  gas  under  the  same  degree  of  compression,  and  the 
increased  resistance  partially  offsets  the  effect  gained  by  the 
gas  expanding  in  the  exploding  cylinder.  It  has  been  learned 
that  the  retention  of  compression  is  not  absolutely  essential 
to  starting  on  the  spark,  as  motors  have  often  been  started  by 
a  spark  after  the  pet  cocks  were  opened  and  compression 
destroyed. 

If  one  cylinder  has  a  leaky  valve,  or  any  other  defect  by 
which  pressure  is  lost  rapidly,  it  may  be  the  motor  will  not 
stop  at  the  normal  position,  but  at  almost  any  point  in  the 
revolution.  This  is  a  serious  condition,  for  if  the  piston 
should  stop  just  before  reaching  bottom  center  and  with  the 
exhaust  valve  open,  the  next  explosion  will  do  no  good,  though 
in  the  rare  cases  where  the  piston  comes  to  rest  about  the  top 
of  the  stroke,  the  conditions  are  more  favorable  to  starting. 
In  case  of  leakage,  the  cause  should  be  determined  and  the 
defect  remedied. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  175 

CARBON  IN  CYLINDERS. 

Symptoms:  Pounding  in  the  cylinders  on  high  gear,  preignition, 
faulty  ignition,  misfiring,  choking  of  pistons  in  cylinders,  difficulty  in 
getting  up  speed  on  high  gear. 

Probable  Cause:  Carbon  deposits  on  the  piston  heads  and  cylinder 
walls. 

No  matter  how  good  the  gasolene  and  oil  may  be,  more  or 
less  carbon  will  be  deposited  in  the  cylinders  and  on  the  piston 
heads,  and  sooner  or  later  will  cause  trouble.  With  high  grade 
fuel  and  lubricant  this  trouble  will  be  minimized — there  will 
be  less  of  it  because  there  will  be  less  carbon.  Excess  of  fuel 
and  lubricant,  or  too  rich  a  mixture  of  gasolene  also  hastens 
the  deposit.  When  this  becomes  so  thick  as  to  foul  the 
cylinders  to  the  point  of  causing  preignition,  or  other  trouble, 
the  only  thing  to  do  is  to  clean  the  cylinders. 

How  to  Clean  Cylinders :  Turn  the  engine  so  that  the  pis- 
tons are  on  a  dead  level,  and  pour  through  the  pet  cocks  or 
valve  plugs,  sufficient  kerosene  to  cover  the  pistons  about  one 
and  a  half  inches  and  allow  it  to  remain  all  night.  By  morn- 
ing a  good  quantity  will  have  found  its  way  past  the  rings  into 
the  base  chamber.  Now  take  out  the  exhaust  valves  and 
exhaust  manifold  and  turn  the  engine  several  times,  to  allow 
any  remaining  kerosene  to  be  expelled ;  turn  the  engine  so  that 
the  piston  is  in  position. 

Make  or  purchase  a  carbon-removing  tool,  and  through  the 
exhaust  valve  plug  or  outlet  port,  if  it  is  placed  conveniently, 
rake  out  the  carbon,  which  will  be  soft. 

The  next  operation  is  most  important,  and  it  is  upon  the 
care  with  which  this  is  done  that  the  success  of  the  whole 
operation  lies.  Take  the  inlet  valve  plug  out,  and  what  carbon 
it  was  impossible  to  reach  from  the  exhaust  side  should  be 
pushed  toward  the  latter.  Wash  out  with  kerosene  from  the 
inlet  plug  to  the  exhaust  by  means  of  a  syringe,  and  finally 
with  a  mixture  of  kerosene  and  gasolene,  half  and  half,  clean 
out  with  a  fresh  rag,  but  always  see  that  the  inlet  valve  of  the 
cylinder  that  is  being  worked  upon  is  closed.  It  is  advisable, 
when  the  pet  cock  is  placed  in  the  head  of  the  cylinder,  to 


1 76  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

remove  same  and  pass  a  wire  down  it,  as  the  orifice  often  be- 
comes clogged  with  carbon,  and  although  the  piston  and 
cylinder  are  clean  the  carbon  in  the  cock  becomes  incandescent 
and  causes  preignition.  It  is  preferable  to  pour  the  kerosene 
into  the  cylinder  direct,  rather  than  to  take  it  in  by  way  of  the 
induction  pipe. 

The  base  chamber  should  be  emptied  and  fresh  lubricating 
oil  inserted  before  running  the  engine,  and  also  insert  a  small 
quantity  of  lubricating  oil  in  the  cylinder  as  well.  This  can 
be  done  through  the  valve  covers,  first  allowing  the  piston  to 
go  below  halfway  down,  and  by  this  means  pour  the  oil  on 
the  walls  instead  of  on  the  piston  head. 

Inserting  a  small  quantity  of  kerosene  through  the  pet  cocks 
after  every  300  miles  should  help  to  keep  the  engine  clean. 
Some  piston  heads  are  turned  rough,  and  will  pick  up  carbon 
quickly.  When  this  is  so  much  trouble  can  be  avoided  by 
taking  them  out  and  having  them  polished  smooth.  Always 
allow  the  kerosene  to  dry  off  thoroughly  before  putting  in 
lubricating  oil. 

NOISE  FROM  TRANSMISSION  GEARS. 

Among  the  causes  of  noise  from  transmission  gears,  which 
make  the  vehicle  "sing,"  a  French  writer  mentions  the  follow- 
ing: "Long  shafts,  ball-bearings,  deformation  of  gears  due 
to  the  hardening  process  and  not  properly  rectified,  the  tan- 
gential speeds  of  the  gears,  the  shape  of  the  gear  teeth,  the 
quality  of  the  metal  used  in  gears,  shafts  and  casings,  the  shape 
of  the  casing,  the  suspension  of  the  casing  in  the  chassis  or 
subframe.  The  effect  of  long  shafts  may  be  directly  one  of 
vibration  or  it  may  be  the  noise  due  to  the  less  perfect  mesh 
resulting  from  the  bending  of  a  long  shaft.  It  is  claimed  that 
ball-bearings  take  play  much  more  rapidly  than  plain  parallel 
bearings,  and  the  writer  points  to  the  noiseless  motors  in  which 
parts  are  moved  with  much  greater  speed  than  in  the  trans- 
mission, but  which,  nevertheless,  make  no  sound  because  the 
bearings  are  all  plain.  He  proposes  to  have  the  subject  in- 
vestigated by  building  two  cars  identical  in  all  respects,  ex- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  177 

cepting  that  the  bearings  in  one  will  be  plain  and  in  the  other 
on  the  ball-bearing  plan.  It  is  claimed  that  the  more  the 
transmission  casing  approaches  the  cylindrical  form  the  less 
sound  is  emitted,  and  also  that  a  steel  casing  'sings'  less  than 
one  made  of  light  metal.  It  is  suggested  to  interpose  a  thin 
layer  of  soft  metal  between  the  crown  of  a  pinion  and  the 
spider,  or  shaft." 

TIMER  TROUBLE  AND  REMEDY. 

Many  conditions  materialize  after  a  motor  has  been  run  for 
a  period,  which  cause  irregular  action  and  which  are  somewhat 
difficult  even  for  the  experienced  motorist  to  locate.  A  short 
time  ago  a  well-informed  operator  of  motor  cars,  who  had 
gained  considerable  experience  by  practical  observation,  had 
to  remedy  a  case  of  irregular  misfiring  decidedly  perplexing, 
and  the  reason  for  the  erratic  action  was  discovered  only  by 
accident.  The  source  of  the  trouble  was  the  timer.  In  going 
over  the  ignition  system  while  the  motor  was  running,  and 
moving  the  primary  wiring  to  learn  if  there  were  broken  con- 
nections or  imperfect  contacts,  a  slight  play  or  side  motion 
was  noticed  in  the  timer.  It  was  observed  that  when  pressed 
to  one  side  the  motor  ran  regularly.  The  cause  of  missing 
was  then  concluded  to  be  a  poor  ground  connection  between 
the  revolving  parts  of  the  timer  and  the  engine  proper,  owing 
to  the  lost  motion  of  the  worn  parts  which  included  the  bush- 
ing surrounding  the  timer  shaft  and  the  gears  below. 

The  most  logical  remedy  is  to  insure  a  more  perfect  contact 
between  the  revolving  portions  and  the  stationary  part,  having 
a  good  metallic  connection  with  the  engine.  The  simplest 
method  of  so  doing  is  to  make  a  V  spring  of  steel  and  attach 
it  to  the  center  of  the  commutator  cover,  so  that  the  lower 
blade  will  bear  upon  the  end  of  the  upright  shaft  which  carries 
the  revolving  distributing  brush,  which  makes  contact  with 
the  collecting  segments  around  the  timer  periphery.  A  wire 
is  then  led  from  the  same  screw  that  holds  the  spring  in  place 
on  the  cover,  to  the  commutator  standard,  or  to  a  nut  holding 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


Handy   Method  of   Reinforcing  Timer   Contact. 

it  in  place  at  the  base,  or  to  any  other  point  having  a  good 
metallic  connection  with  the  engine. 

Another  Trouble. — There  is  another  cause  of  trouble  in  an 
old  motor  that  is  often  overlooked.  As  the  surfaces  of  the 
fiber  insulating  ring  on  the  inside  of  a  commutator  or  timer 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


179 


wear  quicker  than  the  metallic  segments,  a  light  cut  is  often 
taken  off  this  surface  to  true  it.  If  too  much  is  taken  off,  the 
arm  of  the  lever  on  the  revolving  segment,  which  holds  the 
contact  roller  at  one  end  and  the  tension  spring  at  the  other, 
will  bear  against  the  hub  of  the  brush  member,  holding  the 
roller  away  from  the  periphery  of  the  ring  and  contact  seg- 
ments, or  at  least  causing  a  poor  contact  and  resultant  mis- 
firing. The  mechanic,  knowing  that  the  surfaces  are  perfectly 
true  and  that  the  timer  is  in  first  class  condition,  is  liable  to 
look  elsewhere  for  the  trouble,  whkh  may  not  be  found  with- 
out a  considerable  loss  of  time.  The  remedy  for  such  a  case 
is  to  either  bend  the  lever  back  a  trifle  or  file  a  small  rounding 
groove  in  the  hub  of  the  revolving  member  so  that  the  lever 
has  sufficient  clearance,  and  the  spring  effort  is  entirely  exerted 
in  keeping  the  roller  in  contact  with  the  inner  periphery  of  the 
fiber  ring. 


Simple  Method  of  Removing  Tight  Wheel. 

It  is  frequently  the  case  that  wheels  and  sprockets  become 
so  tightly  set  that  it  is  difficult,  if  not  almost  impossible,  to 
remove  them  without  injury.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  relief  may 
be  had  by  an  ingenious  use  of  an  ordinary  lifting  jack,  which 
every  motorist  is  supposed  to  carry. 


i8o  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Attach  stout  ropes  to  four  of  the  spokes  as  near  the  brake 
drums  as  possible.  Then  remove  the  hub  cap  and  insert  a 
block  of  hard  wood  so  it  will  touch  the  end  of  the  axle.  Un- 
screw the  jack  so  it  will  be  down  to  its  smallest  lift,  and  place 
the  head  end  against  the  block  of  wood.  Next  pass  the  ropes 
through  the  holes  in  the  base  of  the  jack,  or  around  the  base 
if  there  are  no  holes,  and  make  them  taut.  As  you  screw  up 
the  jack  in  the  ordinary  way  an  even  pressure  will  be  exerted 
which  will  bring  the  wheel  off  without  injury,  and  with  little 
trouble.  It  is  a  far  better  method  than  attempting  to  tap  the 
wheel  loose  with  a  hammer,  which,  no  matter  how  carefully 
done,  is  pretty  sure  to  mar  the  paint,  if  it  does  not  do  more 
serious  injury.  Exactly  the  same  means  may  be  employed  in 
the  removal  of  sprockets. 

TROUBLE  WITH  VALVE  TAPPETS. 

Tappets  are  the  push  rods  which  open  and  close  the  valve 
seats.  It  frequently  happens  that  these  rods  get  out  of  adjust- 
ment, leaving  too  great  a  space  between  their  heads  and  the 
end  of  the  valve  stems.  When  this  occurs  there  is  a  noisy, 
clicking  sound  which  can  be  only  overcome  by  readjusting  the 
tappets.  Generally  the  space  between  the  adjacent  ends  of 
the  push  rods  and  valve  stems  should  be  between  1-64  or  1-32 
inch,  sometimes  more,  but  rarely  less.  Of  course  the  smaller 
the  space  the  less  noise,  but  sufficient  space  must  be  allowed 
for  elongation  of  the  valve  stem  due  to  expansion  when  the 
motor  becomes  warm,  and  for  irregularities  in  the  shape  of 
the  cam  or  roller. 

When  the  space  is  too  great  there  will  be  a  disagreeable 
sound — not  a  pound  or  a  knock,  but  a  clicking  noise.  It  may 
be  caused  by  one  tappet,  by  two,  or  by  all,  although  it  is 
seldom  that  all  of  them  are  out  of  order  at  one  time  unless  they 
have  been  neglected. 

Locating  the  Trouble. — For  locating  the  noisy  valves  in 
cases  of  this  kind  a  simple  tool,  such  as  is  shown  at  Figure  4, 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  This  is  made  from  a  strip  of  brass 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


181 


about  1-16  inch  thick  and  8  inches  long,  with  one  end  tapered 
by  laying  it  on  an  anvil  and  pounding  it  into  shape  with  a 
hammer.  A  tool  of  this  kind  may  be  readily  slipped  under 
a  suspected  valve  stem  as  indicated  in  the  center  valve  in 
Figure  5,  and  when  the  offending  valve  is  found  the  insertion 
of  the  tool  will  cause  the  clicking  to  cease  abruptly  and  the 
valve  to  remain  quiet  until  the  tool  is  removed. 

The  experienced  repairman  can  generally  find  a  tappet  that 


Fig.  4— Tool  for  Locating  Noisy  Valve  Tappets. 

is  badly  out  of  order  in  a  very  short  time  by  simply  working 
the  tappets  of  each  cylinder  up  against  the  valve  stems  and 
down  again  with  his  fingers,  while  the  pistons  of  the  respective 
cylinders  are  on  their  compression  strokes,  but  the  novice  will 
find  the  use  of  the  simple  tool  described  the  best. 

Adjusting  the  Valves. — If  all  the  valve  stem  spacings  of  a 
motor  are  to  be  examined  and  adjusted  the  best  method  to 
follow  is  to  turn  the  motor  over  by  hand  until  the  piston  in 
the  first  cylinder  is  about  half  way  up  on  its  compression 
stroke,  at  which  time  both  valves  of  that  cylinder  should  be 
tightly  closed ;  then  examine  the  space  between  the  stems  and 
push  rods.  In  the  absence  of  a  suitable  steel  gauge  for  regu- 
lating valve  space  many  repairmen  use  a  common  business 
card  as  shown  in  Figure  4.  The  card  C  is  folded  once  and 
slipped  between  the  ends  of  the  stem  and  tappet,  the  lock-nut 


182 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


N  is  loosened,  and  the  stud  S  is  screwed  up  or  outward  until 
it  just  begins  to  pinch  the  card  and  prevents  it  from  sliding 
about  as  readily  as  at  first.  The  card  is  then  removed  and  the 
lock  nut  tightened. 

When  both  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  have  been  adjusted 
in  this  manner  each  one  should  be  individually  tested  with  a 
single  thickness  of  the  card  to  see  if  the  valves  remain  tightly 
closed  throughout  the  required  period.  This  is  best  done  by 
sliding  a  single  thickness  of  the  card  back  and  forth  between 
the  ends  of  the  tappet  rods  and  valve  stems  as  the  motor  is 


Fig.  5 — Various  Methods  of  Adjusting  Tappets. 

being  turned  slowly  from  the  closing  to  the  opening  points  of 
each  valve.  The  marks  on  the  flywheel  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  this  operation  if  accessible,  but  they  are  not 
necessary.  One  can  slide  the  card  under  a  stem  and  turn  the 
motor  until  the  card  is  seized,  indicating  valve  opening,  then 
a  little  further  until  it  is  free  again,  which  marks  the  closing 
of  the  valve;  now,  by  turning  still  further  and  continually 
turning  the  card  about,  if  the  card  is  not  seized  before  the 
regular  time  for  the  valve  to  open,  according  to  either  the 
position  of  the  piston  or  crank-handle,  the  adjustment  is  about 
right,  but  if  the  card  is  prematurely  seized  the  space  is  not 
sufficient.  The  valves  in  each  cylinder  should  be  adjusted  in 
the  same  manner. 

Other  Forms  of  Adjustment. — In  Figure  5  a  sectional  view 
of  the    Oldsmobile  valve   tappet  is   given.     To   all   outward 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  183 

appearance  this  tappet  is  not  adjustable,  but  if  adjustment  of 
the  space  S  is  desired  one  has  only  to  raise  the  valve  stem  V, 
remove  the  tappet  and  casing  G  from  the  motor,  take  out  the 
plunger  P,  and  replace  the  disk  D  with  one  of  a  thicker  or 
thinner  size.  These  disks  are  furnished  in  thicknesses  vary- 
ing by  thousandths  of  an  inch. 

Another  type  of  adjustable  tappet  that  has  given  trouble  to 
the  novice  is  that  of  the  Inter-State  motor  shown  in  the  last 
valve  in  Figure  5.  The  adjustable  feature  of  this  tappet  is 
quite  conventional  but  to  reduce  the  tappet  noise  to  the  mini- 
mum all  space  between  the  valve  stem  V  and  the  tappet  stud 
T  is  eliminated  by  the  spring  S  which  holds  the  stud  T  against 
the  end  of  the  stem  V;  the  required  space  in  this  case  being 
between  the  lower  end  of  the  sleeve  L  and  a  fiber  disk  D, 
where  the  sound  is  considerably  muffled. 

FLOODING  OF  FLOAT  CHAMBER. 

Symptoms:      Car    runs    smoothly,    but    clutch    slips    in    ascending 
hill;  after  halt  engine  does  not  respond  to  cranking. 
Cause:     Too   much  gasoline  in  float  chamber. 

The  cause  probably  is  that  the  adjustment  of  the  level  is 
incorrect,  allowing  too  much  gasolene  to  get  into  the  float 
chamber ;  not  sufficient,  to  cause  an  overflow  when  the  car 
is  standing  still,  but  as  soon  as  it  is  inclined  and  allowed  to 
stand  still  on  an  upward  grade  it  overflows  the  jet,  causing  the 
flooding. 

The  layback  of  the  needle  valve  while  the  car  is  standing 
still  on  an  up-grade  will  cause  an  overflow  at  the  jet  if  the 
seat  of  the  needle  is  not  a  perfect  fit  on  its  seat  or  any  small 
impurity  finds  its  way  underneath  the  same,  rolling  back 
owing  to  the  inclined  plane  of  the  car. 

The  effect  of  flooding  will  not  be  noticed  as  long  as  the  car 
keeps  going,  as  the  extra  amount  of  gasolene  will  be  used 
up  by  the  extra  work  the  motor  is  called  upon  to  perform ;  in 
fact,  it  will  improve  the  running  of  some  cars  to  place  the  float 
chamber  in  front  of  the  jet.  In  most  cases  opening  the  pet- 
cock  beneath  the  carbureter  and  draining  off  some  of  the  sur- 


184  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

plus  fuel,  and  the«n  closing  the  cock  is  all  that  is  required.  A 
few  moments  later  work  the  crank  vigorously  and  the  motor 
will  almost  invariably  get  into  action. 

LOCATING  A  "KNOCK." 

It  is  one  thing  to  know  that  your  machine  is  "knocking," 
and  to  be  able  to  remedy  the  difficulty  when  you  are  certain 
where  it  is.  Definite  locating  of  the  cause  of  the  "knock," 
however,  is  an  entirely  different  thing.  The  man  who  is  not 
schooled  in  this  particular  line  may  hunt  for  hours  without 
being  able  to  locate  the  trouble,  while  one  who  has  the  "know 
how,"  will  be  able  to  put  his  hand  on  the  defective  part  with- 
out much  trouble  or  delay.  The  causes  of  "knocks,"  and  the 
various  means  of  overcoming  them  are  treated  at  length  on 
pages  95-98  of  this  book,  so  there  is  no  necessity  of  again 
taking  up  this  feature  of  the  subject.  The  only  thing  of 
interest  to  be  now  considered  is  the  means  of  locating  the 
"knock." 

Locating  the  Trouble. — There  is  a  wide  difference  between 
knocking  and  pounding.  The  latter  invariably  occurs  within 
the  cylinder,  while  "knocks"  usually  occur  in  connection  with 
the  crankcase  mechanism.  Any  man  of  ordinary  sense  should 
be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  two  by  the  difference  in 
sound,  this  difference  being  well  explained  by  the  terms 
used  to  describe  the  two  noises — one  is  a  "knock ;"  the  other 
is  a  "pound,"  although  they  are  misused  interchangeably. 

Assuming  that  the  main  bearings  of  the  crankshaft  are 
properly  adjusted,  the  only  other  possible  cause  for  the  trouble 
that  presents  itself  is  that  the  attachment  of  the  crankcase  to 
the  cross-members  of  the  frame,  is  insecure.  First  assure 
yourself  whether  the  knock  really  comes  from  the  front  end 
or  the  rear  end  of  the  crankcase.  This  may  be  done  by  loosen- 
ing the  ignition  cables  on  the  plugs  of  the  first  and  fourth 
cylinders,  then,  while  the  motor  is  running,  disconnect  and 
connect  each  of  them  several  times ;  if  the  knock  is  at  the  front 
end  there  will  be  a  decided  knock  every  time  connection  is 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


185 


186  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

made  with  the  plug  of  the  front  cylinder,  and  if  the  knock 
occurs  when  connection  is  made  with  the  plug  of  the  rear 
cylinder  then  the  rear  end  attachment  is  at  fault.  If,  however, 
there  should  be  a  knock  at  both  ends  then,  perhaps,  both  ends 
will  require  tightening  up.  To  tighten  these  connections 
lower  the  mud-pan,  and  take  off  the  inspection  plates  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crank  case ;  access  may  then  be  had  to  the  cot- 
tered  and  castellated  nuts  which  secure  the  crankcase  to  the 
cross  members  of  the  frame.  Remove  the  cotter  keys,  tighten 
the  nuts  which  are  loose,  and  the  trouble  will  be  eliminated. 

ENGINE  HARD  TO  START. 

There  are  many  reasons  why  a  gasolene  engine  is  slow  in 
responding  to  efforts  to  start  it.  There  are  few  drivers  but 
what  have  trouble  in  this  respect,  and  but  few  who  can  locate 
the  trouble  except  by  chance.  Most  of  the  complaints  are 
about  as  follows: 

"We  can  only  get  a  few  shots  from  our  engine,  it  will  then 
die  down  and  stop ;  sometimes  we  see  a  dense  smoke  coming 
from  the  exhaust  as  a  result  of  these  few  shots ;  but  the  engine 
will  not  keep  a-going  long  enough  to  gain  any  speed." 

The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright  says  that  the  smoke 
complained  of  indicates  one  of  two  things :  either  an  over- 
supply  of  gasolene  or  an  excess  of  lubricating  oil  in  the  com- 
bustion chamber.  The  latter  is  not  so  likely  to  occur  in  the 
beginning  of  a  run  or  in  starting  the  engine  as  after  the  engine 
has  been  running  for  a  while. 

The  former  is  more  likely  to  occur  when  starting  the  engine 
than  later;  therefore,  it  is  tolerably  safe  to  conclude  that  the 
engine  is  drowned  with  gasolene.  That  is,  there  is  too 
much  gasolene  in  the  combustion  chamber  for  the  air  taken 
in,  causing  too  rich  a  mixture,  which  is  hard  to  ignite,  and  if 
ignited  at  all  will  cause  incomplete  combustion  and  a  light 
expansion,  resulting  in  very  little  power  from  the  explosion. 

Consequently,  the  engine  cannot  gain  speed  from  the  few 
impulses  nor  completely  consume  the  fuel  in  the  ignition  or 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


187 


i=L 


EEL 


a 
O 


combustion  chamber.  Part  of  it  goes  out  in  smoke  instead  of 
being  burned  up  clean,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  operator  in  his 
anxiety  to  get  started  turns  on  more  fuel  as  soon  as  the  first 
shot  is  taken,  which  only  aggravates  the  already  drowned 
condition.  Adds  "insult  to  injury,"  as  it  were. 

In  many  instances  it  is  found  necessary  to  keep  the  needle 
valve  tightly  closed  for  some  time  and  coax  the  engine  a  few 


188  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

shots  at  a  time  until  the  surplus  fuel  in  the  cylinder  is  suffi- 
ciently consumed  to  begin  taking  its  ignitions  and  impulses 
regularly. 

When  there  is  quite  a  quantity  of  liquid  gasolene  in  the 
combustion  chamber  it  will  not  all  burn  up  at  one  ignition, 
nor  at  half  a  dozen  for  that  matter.  It  will,  in  connection 
with  the  burned  gases  remaining  in  the  cylinder  from  previous 
charge,  choke  the  intended  succeeding  ignition  entirely  and 
prevent  it.  Consequently,  it  may  result  in  only  one  impulse 
and  stop,  or  after  missing  several,  catch  another,  then  miss  one 
or  more,  then  catch  again,  and  so  on  until  finally  enough  of 
the  fuel  is  consumed  to  cause  a  better  mixture  and  a  more 
effective  combustion. 

When  all  the  fuel  that  has  been  flooded  into  the  cylinder 
is  used,  then  turning  on  a  little  from  the  needle  valve  usually 
drives  the  engine  up  to  full  speed  and  no  more  trouble  is  ex- 
perienced until  the  next  start.  Sometimes  this  trouble  is 
caused  by  opening  the  needle  point  too  freely,  or  there  may 
be  a  leak  through  the  carbureter  mechanism,  or,  if  float  car- 
bureter is  in  use,  the  float  may  fail  to  shut  off  the  supply  and 
allow  flooding. 

Other  Causes. — On  the  same  subject  Gas  Power  offers  the 
following  suggestions :  The  old  saw  about  "no  gasolene  in 
the  supply  tank/'  and  "the  electric  spark  circuit  cut  out," 
should  fool  no  operator  in  this  wide-awake  gasolene  engine 
age.  But  they  do. 

First  of  all  if  a  battery  is  used  to  supply  the  ignition  current 
let  us  enquire  if  it  is  getting  weak  when  ignitions  fail  to  occur, 
and  why  it  is  weak.  It  may  be  on  account  of  age,  long  usage, 
evaporation  of  liquid  within  the  cell,  internal  short  circuit,  or 
too  great  a  drain  because  of  almost  continual  contact  of  the 
circuit  breaker.  If  a  magneto  is  used  to  supply  the  current 
and  ignition  does  not  occur  regularly  we  may  look  for  a  worn- 
out  brush,  or  a  brush  which  is  stuck  in  the  holder  and  does 
not  touch  or  ride  the  commutator  at  all ;  or  the  armature  may 
not  revolve,  or  so  slowly  that  no  current  is  generated.  In 
one  instance  an  armature  would  not  revolve  and  on  investiga- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  189 

tion  it  was  found  that  the  shaft  was  stuck  in  its  bearing  be- 
cause of  some  fine  cuttings  that  had  lodged  there.  A  little 
dressing  and  cleaning  of  the  box  corrected  the  trouble  in  short 
order.  Then  the  contact  points  in  some  magnetos  may  get 
loose,  or  the  winding  of  the  armature  may  get  damaged,  or 
the  wire  carrying  the  current  to  the  engine  may  get  short 
circuited  and  take  the  current  to  places  other  than  the  igniter 
points. 

Timing  Device  Troubles. — The  timing  device  may  be  out 
of  adjustment,  or  the  igniter  points,  if  of  the  contact  kind  on 
the  inside  of  the  ignition  chamber,  may  have  become  loose 
and  fail  to  make  contact.  The  insulation  of  the  spark  plug 
may  be  broken,  allowing  a  short  circuit.  The  spark  coil  may 
be  wet  or  damp,  also  causing  a  short  circuit.  There  may  be  a 
loose  set  screw  or  thumb  nut  on  some  of  the  binding  posts 
that  are  supposed  to  hold  the  ends  of  the  wire  onto  the  engine, 
the  spark  coil,  the  batteries,  or  the  switch.  Next  to  ignition 
we  must  think  of  the  carbureter  and  its  mechanism,  and  find 
out  whether  the  mixture  is  too  rich  or  too  weak. 

One  of  the  very  common  causes  of  failure  to  start  is  the 
flooding  of  the  carbureter.  The  operator,  in  his  anxiety  to 
get  a  good  start,  flushes  the  mixer  so  that  the  first  inhalation 
carries  into  the  cylinder  a  "slobber"  of  gasolene  which  is  un- 
atomized  and  therefore  not  serviceable. 

Then  we  have  leaky  valves,  cracked  piston  rings,  defective 
spark  plugs,  faulty  packing,  and  water  in  the  cylinders,  any 
one  of  which  will  cause  difficulty  in  starting. 

ENGINE  STOPS  SUDDENLY. 

When  a  motor  stops  unexpectedly  it  is  well  to  diagnose  the 
symptoms  immediately  proceeding  the  final  "kick."  If  the 
motor  quits  working  without  advance  warning,  begin  by  over- 
hauling the  ignition  outfit  to  ascertain  whether  the  spark  is 
ample.  Take  the  wire  from  the  spark  screw  and  wipe  the  end 
of  the  wire  on  the  frame  or  bearings.  If  there  is  no  spark,  or 
a  feeble  one,  the  trouble  is  very  likely  in  the  battery  or  wiring. 


190  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Open  the  locker  which  contains  the  battery  and  spark  coil, 
and  go  over  the  binders  carefully  in  search  of  some  part  which 
has  been  shaken  loose  by  vibration.  If  everything  is  tight  and 
in  good 'order  next  feel  of  the  wiring  to  discover  a  short  circuit 
caused  by  breakage  or  a  chafing  through  of  the  insulation.  If 
there  is  nothing  wrong  here  try  the  spark  again.  Failing  to 
locate  the  trouble  by  these  means  put  an  ammeter  to  the  ter- 
minals of  the  battery  box.  The  chances  are  that  the  cells 
may  be  exhausted. 

If  the  cells  are  dead  get  a  jar  of  salammoniac  solution  and, 
having  punched  a  few  holes  in  the  cells,  immerse  them  in  the 
solution.  Three  minutes  of  soaking  will  usually  restore 
enough  life  to  the  cells  to  put  the  battery  in  working  order 
again. 

WHEN  THE  LIGHTS  "KINK." 

When  the  lights  flicker,  and  almost  go  out  at  times  it  may 
be,  and  doubtless  is,  caused  by  water  getting  into  the  tubing. 
Of  this  A.  W.  Strawman,  of  Anamosa,  Iowa,  writes  as  follows : 

"I  recently  came  across  a  garage  owner  who  had  been 
troubled'Very  much  this  way  and  here  is  how  he  provided  a 
remedy:  He  had  a  tinner  make  a  tin  cup  about  1^2  inches  in 
diameter  and  about  2  inches  in  height.  Have  two  openings 
about  y%  inch  in  length  the  right  size  to  fit  your  tubing;  at- 
tached to  the  sides  as  close  as  possible  to  the  top,  each  oppo- 
site the  other.  Be  sure  your  cup  will  be  airtight  when 
attached.  You  can  tell  before  hand  by  holding  your  finger 
over  one  end  and  blowing  in  the  other  end.  All  you  have  to 
do  to  attach  the  cup  is  to  cut  your  tubing  in  two  and  slip  the 
ends  on.  To  empty,  pull  ends  off  and  turn  the  cup  upside 
down.  This  owner  had  his  cup  attached  close  to  the  genera- 
tor, just  close  enough  so  that  the  weight  of  the  cup  would 
rest  on  the  running  board.  I  don't  think  it  is  really  necessary 
that  the  cup  should  rest  on  the  running  board  if  your  tubing 
fits  tight  and  you  empty  it  each  night  after  using  the  lights. 
This  man  said  it  was  surprising  how  much  water  would  collect 
in  the  cup  in  one  night  and  said  that  his  lights  had  not  troubled 
him  a  particle  since." 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 
DETECTING  A  SHORT  CIRCUIT. 


191 


Where  a  short  circuit  is  suspected  it  may  often  be  detected 
by  testing  the  ignition  in  the  dark,  as  a  spark  will  be  noticed 
passing  from  the  defective  point.  The  "short"  is  most  liable 


Mechanism  of  the  B.  &  S.  Breaker. 

The  left-hand  illustration  shows  cam  K  in  contact  with  blade  V,  and  platinum 
points  PI  and  P2  together.  The  plunger  P  is  in  the  "up"  position.  In  the 
right-hand  illustration  the  cam  K  has  fallen  away  from  the  blade  V,  thereby 
allowing  the  platinum  points  Px  and  P2  to  separate. 

to  occur  in  the  high-tension  circuit,  in  connection  with  the 
wire  leading  from  the  coil  to  the  sparking  plug.  The  trouble 
should  be  looked  for  while  the  wire  is  in  the  position  it  gener- 
ally occupies  on  the  car,  as  the  mere  act  of  moving  it  in  order 
to  make  the  test  may  prevent  temporarily  the  recurrence  of 
the  short  circuit,  and  thus  mislead  the  operator. 

Things  to  Avoid. — Never  purchase  cheap  insulating  wire. 


192  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

A  few  discharges  of  the  battery  will  more  than  make  up  the 
difference  between  the  cost  of  cheap  and  good  quality  wire. 
When  the  wire  becomes  chafed  the  worn  parts  should  be  re- 
bound with  insulating  tape  and  precaution  taken  to  prevent 
further  rubbing.  When  new  wire  can  be  obtained  replace  the 
worn  part.  If  this  is  not  to  be  had  slipping  a  length  of  rubber 
tubing  over  the  damaged  section  will  give  protection. 

Oil  rots  insulation  and  it  is  therefore  essential  that  wires 
should  be  kept  free  from  oil  so  as  to  lessen  the  liability  of  a 
short  circuit.  Should  a  leak  occur  and  the  insulation  appear 
sound,  there  may  be  a  breakage  in  the  wire  itself.  Pass  the 
wire  through  the  fingers,  giving  it  a  bending  motion.  If  a 
break  exists  it  will  be  readily  felt.  Should  it  escape  detection 
by  this  means  try  a  voltmeter  on  the  primary  wire  by  form- 
ing a  circuit  of  the  battery,  wire  and  voltmeter,  giving  the 
wire  a  slight  twisting  during  the  test. 

Repairing  of  Break. — If  there  is  current  in  the  battery,  but 
none  can  be  detected  through  the  wire  by  the  voltmeter,  it 
is  evident  there  is  a  break.  If  new  wire  is  not  at  hand  the 
break  may  be  repaired  by  slitting  the  insulation  lengthwise 
over  the  break,  and  peeling  it  back  for  about  an  inch  on  each 
side  of  the  break.  Then  twist  the  bared  ends  of  the  wire 
together,  turn  the  insulation  back  over  the  joint,  and  bind 
carefully  with  insulating  tape.  This  will  last,  and  do  good 
service,  until  new  wire  can  be  obtained  and  the  defective  part 
replaced. 

Proper  Lubrication  Important. 

The  trend  of  automobile  design  in  latter  days  has  been  in 
the  direction  of  elimination  of  plain  bearings,  not  so  much  be- 
cause the  bearings  failed  to  work,  but  for  the  reason  that  there 
is  a  certain  sturdy  reliability  in  connection  with  types  of  ball 
and  roller  bearings -which  is  not  to  be  imitated  in  the  absence 
of  their  use.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  ball  and  roller 
bearings  are  used  for  their  anti-friction  qualities,  thus  promis- 
ing an  increase  in  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  machine. 

It  is  true  that  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the  machine  is  in- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  193 

creased  if  ball  or  roller  bearings  are  used,  but  the  advantages 
thus  afforded  are  scarcely  worth  mentioning  in  the  light  of  the 
fact  that  a  continued  supply  of  suitable  lubricating  medium  is 
difficult  to  afford  and  plain  bearings  will  not  lend  themselves 
to  the  process  with  the  same  certainty  that  follows  the  use  of 
anti-friction  types  of  bearings. 

Lessons  Learned  by  Experience. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  automobile  the  question  of  lubri- 
cation assumed  a  position  of  undue  importance,  through  the 
use  of  inferior  lubricants,  in  many  cases  due  to  the  lack  of 
knowledge  of  autoists  on  the  one  hand  and  lack  of  experience 
in  the  automobile  industry  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers  of 
lubricants.  It  was  for  autoists  to  learn  that  the  lubricants  to 
be  used  in  work  of  this  character  could  not  be  too  good,  nor 
of  a  promiscuous  selection. 

It  was  also  for  the  makers  of  lubricants  to  learn  that  they 
could  not  afford  to  blindly  dole  out  cheap  oil  for  use  in  auto- 
mobiles at  the  instance  of  autoists  who  failed  to  appreciate  the 
needs  of  the  occasion.  In  the  meantime,  it  went  a  long  way  in 
the  direction  of  good  success  when  the  builders  of  automobiles 
made  up  their  minds  to  supply  the  means  by  which  lubricating 
materials  could  be  used  advantageously  in  the  bearings  to  be 
maintained  in  working  order. 

Kind  of  Oil  Required. 

Unctuousness  is  the  prime  property.  If  the  oil  will  not  af- 
ford a  slippery  surface  it  is  of  no  value.  Anything  in  oil  that 
supplants  unctuousness  is  detrimental,  since  it  displaces  the 
very  property  for  which  oil  is  used,  primarily ;  soapstone, 
chalk,  talcum,  or  any  other  (so-called)  body  maker,  therefore, 
an  adulterant  that  can  have  no  place  in  an  honest  lubricating 
medium. 

Body,  next  to  unctuousness,  is  of  importance,  since  oil  has  a 
duty  to  perform  aside  from  furnishing  a  slippery  surface.  The 
metals  must  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  each  other, 
and  the  requisite  body  must  be  there  to  enable  the  oil  to  sus- 


194  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

tain  the  pressure.  Mobility  is  also  a  property  that  should  be 
well  regulated,  in  view  of  the  arduousness  of  the  service,  and, 
also,  the  mobility  should  be  constant.  If  the  oil  lacks  mobility 
it  will  flow  sluggishly,  and  may  not  be  able  to  flow  freely  into 
the  surfaces  to  be  lubricated. 

Acid  a  Costly  Evil. 

Mobility  should  not  be  much  affected  by  temperature 
changes.  Acidity  in  lubricants  is  the  bane  that  leads  to  grief. 
The  costly  ball  and  roller  bearings  are  ruined  by  acid,  and  in 
plain  bearings  the  polished  surfaces  of  the  spindles  and  jour- 
nals are  ruined.  Acidity  may  be  due  to  a  faulty  process,  or  it 
may  be  the  product  of  reaction  in  the  materials  used.  Heat 
and  light  in  the  presence  of  atmosphere  seem  to  be  all  that  is 
necessary  to  render  the  average  "animal  fat"  acid  in  its  reac- 
tion within  a  short  while  after  it  is  compounded. 

A  residue  after  combustion  is  very  undesirable ;  nor  does 
it  matter  if  the  residue  is  carbon  alone  or  carbon  and  other  ash 
producing  elements.  Cylinder  oil  is  ultimately  burned  and 
the  products  of  combustion  should  be  gases,  not  solid  non- 
combustibles.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
all  cylinder  oils  should  be  filtered.  Filteration  materially  re- 
duces free  carbon,  and  a  filtered  oil  will  always  deposit  less 
carbon  than  an  unfiltered  oil.  Filtered  oils  may  be  distin- 
guished by  their  lighter,  clearer  colors. 

Things  to  Be  Avoided. 

A  good  lubricant  with  a  bad  color  is  superior  to  a  bad  lubri- 
cant with  a  good  color,  but  the  fact  remains  that  any  given  oil 
will  be  improved  if  it  is  filtered.  In  other  words,  a  bad  oil 
can  be  made  better  by  filtering,  and  a  good  oil  can  be  made 
better  by  filtering.  In  each  case  the  color  is  made  lighter. 

Jelly-forming  constituents  are  much  to  be  avoided.  What 
is  wanted,  then,  are  unctuousness  to  the  maximum,  body  regu- 
lated to  suit  the  conditions  and  a  constant  mobility  unaffected 
by  temperature.  Solid  lubricants  should  only  differ  in  body ; 
they  should  not  lack  unctuousness,  nor  should  they  change  mo- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  195 

bility  under  temperature  changes.  What  we  do  not  want  are 
acidity  and  residue.  Pure  mineral  lubricants  seem  to  be  the 
right  products  in  automobile  work  and,  fortunately,  there  are 
producers  of  honesty  and  skill  catering  to  the  automobile 
trade. 

The  automobiles  of  today  are  less  noisy  and  lower  in  cost 
of  maintenance  because  grease  cups  are  used  in  great  profu- 
sion, where  once  a  hole  was  drilled  and  dirt  was  free  to  enter, 
there  to  mix  with  an  occasional  drop  of  oil,  to  make  abrasions 
that  soon  increase  the  lost  motion  and  the  rattle. 

Care  in  Using  Lubricants. 

If  it  is  important  to  provide  lubricants  of  a  satisfactory 
quality  in  automobile  work,  it  is  equally  important  to  provide 
the  means  for  utilization  of  the  same.  In  former  times  it  was 
the  custom  to  oil  the  crankshaft  bearings  of  the  motor,  thrust 
grease  in  the  transmission  gearset,  and  daub  oil  over  sus- 
picious looking  surfaces,  hoping  thereby  to  accomplish  the  im- 
portant purpose  at  small  expense  of  labor. 

Then  it  was  not  unusual  to  observe  a  multiplicity  of  little 
holes,  which  punctured  the  castings  serving  for  journal  boxes, 
as  bearings  for  the  linkage  members;  walking  beams  on  the 
motor  valve  motions,  and  in  fact,  pretty  much  everything  out- 
side of  the  crankshaft.  The  little  holes  were  not  protected 
from  mud  accumulations,  and  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  oil  on 
odd  occasions  served  to  form  the  gritty  paste  which  accounted 
for  the  rattle  that  crept  into  automobiles  at  what  is  now  re- 
garded as  an  urgent  invitation. 

Automatic  Use  of  Oil. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  the  custom  to  afford  a  good  me- 
chanical means  by  which  oil  or  grease  is  used  at  every  spot, 
the  result  of  relative  motion.  Besides  the  means  by  which  oil 
or  grease  is  transferred  to  the  bearing  surfaces,  means  are 
provided  by  which  foreign  substances  are  excluded. 

It  is  also  well  understood  that  grease  creeping  out  from  the 
bearing  surfaces  is  a  sign  that  dirt  is  not  creeping-  in,  and  so 


196  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

it  is  the  custom  to  supply  oil  in  sufficient  quantities  continu- 
ously, not  only  to  afford  the  desired  slippery  surfaces,  but  to 
prevent  the  influx  of  foreign  substances. 

Office  of  the  Grease  Cup. 

In  former  times  the  utilization  of  grease  cups  was  but  spar- 
ing, whereas  today  each  little  bearing  which  cannot  be  easily 
reached  by  oil  from  the  main  supply  is  fitted  out  with  a  grease 
cup,  the  construction  of  which  is  such  that  grease  in  the  right 
amount  is  supplied  to  the  bearings  continuously,  and  the  me- 
chanical construction  of  grease  cups  is  such  that  the  covers 
will  stay  on  and  the  pressure  will  remain  as  desired,  despite 
the  road  inequalities  and  the  vibrations  they  engender. 

If  it  is  true  that  the  little  bearings  are  cared  for  by  means 
of  grease  cups,  it  is  equally  a  fact  that  the  universal  joints  are 
either  packed  in  grease  or  are  fed  with  oil  continuously 
through  a  pipe  receiving  its  supply  from  a  positive  oiling  sys- 
tem. These  positive  oiling  systems  are  largely  of  the  force 
feed  type,  or  they  may  be  what  is  known  as  the  pressure  sys- 
tem. Then  there  is  the  scheme  utilizing  balanced  pressures 
with  the  oil  in  a  tank  cast  integral  with  the  crankcase.  This 
idea  is  being  carried  out  very  elaborately  in  many  of  the  1911 
models.  The  old  crude  splash  system  is  retained  in  point  of 
principle  in  many  cases,  but  is  no  longer  a  crude  device. 

Efficient  Ignition  Sources. 

When  reference  is  had  to  ignition  sources,  the  point  of  view 
is  everything.  The  time  was  when  the  quality  of  the  equip- 
ment indicated  the  absence  of  careful  thought  and  the  details 
were  worked  out  but  rarely,  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of 
the  occasion.  Under  such  conditions,  it  was  no  wonder  if 
spark  coils  fell  into  some  disrepute,  and  since  it  is  difficult  to 
shake  off  the  reputation  whether  it  is  good  or  bad,  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  autoists  in  general  cling  tenaciously  to  the  idea  that 
spark  coils  have  to  be  supplemented  by  some  other  means  of 
ignition. 

Writing  on  this  subject  in  the  Sportsman  and  Motorist, 
"J.  B."says: 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  197 

During  the  time  when  coils  were  in  the  constructive  stage 
and  before  the  introduction  of  features  involved  in  first  class 
work,  there  were  enough  spark  troubles  to  make  it  desirable 
to  introduce  a  supplementary  ignition  system.  In  those  days 
the  magneto  was  so  poorly  developed  that  from  the  point  of 
view  of  reliability  it  stood  for  very  little,  so  it  came  to  pass 
that  the  two  systems  were  introduced,  hoping  that  at  least 
one  of  them  would  be  in  working  order  during  the  disability 
of  the  other.  That  the  reputation  for  unreliable  performances 
should  cling  to  either  the  spark-coil  systems,  or  the  magneto 
is  not  to  be  explained  unless  account  is  taken  for  the  prone- 
ness  of  men  to  take  the  future  performance  for  granted  as  the 
product  of  information  in  relation  to  the  past. 

Modern  Spark  Coils  Are  Good. 

As  it  is  today,  spark  coils  are  made  under  the  most  rigid 
specifications  as  to  ability  to  furnish  a  spark  of  the  required 
gap  ability,  involving  the  maximum  energy  required  for  the 
purpose.  The  coils  are  made  in  units,  thus  rendering  it  pos- 
sible to  replace  any  one  of  them  for  any  reason,  and  while  there 
is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  multiple  tremblers  on  the 
one  hand  and  master  vibrators  on  the  other,  it  is  equally  a  fact 
that  good  results  are  obtainable  either  way. 

If  on  the  other  hand,  the  question  of  battery  economy  is  one 
of  special  importance  under  certain  conditions,  resort  may  be 
had  to  the  system  by  means  of  which  a  unit  coil  is  rendered 
serviceable  in  the  extreme  and  the  energy  of  the  battery  is 
conserved. 

It  is  not  uncommon  now  to  observe  the  use  of  a  magneto  in 
the  main,  supplemented  by  a  step-up  transformer  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  vibrator.  In  this  system,  it  is  the  idea  to  be  able 
to  start  on  the  supplementary  battery  through  the  good  office 
of  the  step-up  transformer  and  to  maintain  running  by  virtue 
of  the  magneto. 

Use  of  Supplementary  Battery. 
Obviously,  the  supplementary  battery  in  connection  with 


198  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

the  step-up  transformer  serves  in  an  emergency,  if  perchance 
the  magneto  fails.  A  system  such  as  this  has  the  virtue  of 
being  almost  as  low  priced  as  that  which  is  obtained  if  an  ab- 
solutely first-class  multiple  coil  system  is  in  vogue.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  relative  cost  question  will  depend  upon  com- 
mercial considerations,  which  can  only  be  settled  as  a  result 
of  specific  investigations  for  the  purpose. 

Benefit  of  Ignition  Indicator. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  devices  have  not  been  available  by 
means  of  which  an  indicator  would  show  the  best  time  of  ig- 
nition, for  a  given  mixture,  considering  the  speed  of  rotation. 
Under  the  circumstances,  it  is  within  the  province  of  the  au- 
toist  or  the  chauffeur  to  determine  by  experimenting  in  the 
light  of  experience  the  best  position  of  the  spark  advance  and 
the  most  efficient  mixture  frDm  the  carbureter  for  the  purpose. 

That  the  future  holds  further  refinements  by  the  way  of 
suitable  indicators,  which  will  show  the  exact  performance 
under  the  governing  conditions,  is  not  to  be  denied  in  view  of 
the  present  knowledge  in  relation  to  this  important  matter.  In 
the  meantime  the  builders  of  automobiles  are  alive  to  the  fact 
that  autoists  of  discrimination  can  be  intrusted  with  a  general 
means  of  controlling  the  spark  and  throttle,  thus  enabling 
them  to  realize  economical  results  and  the  greatest  possible 
flexibility  in  the  operation  of  the  car. 


PART  11. 


OVERHAULING 

•  •  •  •  •  /v .LN  \J •  •  •  •  • 

General  Repair  of  Car 


Daily  overhaul,  monthly  overhaul,  complete 
overhaul,  the  engine,  the  lubrication  system, 
taking  down  the  clutch,  reassembling,  over- 
hauling, the  change  speed  gear,  chains 
and  chain  wheels,  live  axle  and  diff- 
erential, the  brakes,  the  steering 
gear,  springs,  tires  and  numer- 
ous overhauling,   hints 
and  tips. 


Overhauling — The  *term  overhauling,  strictly  applied,  would 
mean  a  complete  examination,  adjustment,  and  repair  of  every 
part  of  a  motor  car  which  shows  signs  of  wear.  The  detection 
of  wear  or  improper  adjustment  throughout  the  whole  vehicle 
would  mean  the  taking  apart  of  practically  the  entire  mechan- 
ism. Although  this  is  a  job  which  is,  as  a  rule,  beyond  the 
power  of  the  ordinary  automobilist,  yet  some  indication  of 

what  should  be  done  will  help  in  determining  whether  his  cai 

199 


200  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

has  been  properly  overhauled  when  put  in  the  hands  of  com- 
petent mechanics.  Such  general  overhauls,  which  should  take 
place  at  least  at  the  end  of  each  season,  are  comprehensively 
dealt  with  later,  but  the- daily  or  weekly  overhaul  which  may 
be  carried  out  by  the  owner  or  driver  or  chauffeur  is  of  vital 
importance,  if  the  car  is  to  be  kept  in  running  order. 

The  Daily  Overhaul. 

We  will  take  first  the  daily  overhaul — that  is  to  say,  the 
daily  care  of  the  car  when  it  is  in  constant  use  in  order  that 
its  efficiency  for  each  day's  work  may  be  assured.  This  daily 
overhaul  should  not  start  on  the  day  on  which  a  car  is  re- 
quired for  work,  but  on  the  previous  evening,  when  as  soon 
as  the  car  is  brought  in  for  the  night,  it  should  be  carefully 
examined,  and  if  it  has  been  driven  through  mud  this  should 
be  removed  before  it  dries.  Indeed,  the  sooner  mud  is  re- 
moved from  the  body  and  chassis  work  of  the  car  the  better 
will  tne  finish  of  this  be  maintained.  Mud  should  on  no  ac- 
count be  rubbed  off  the  car,  otherwise  scratching  of  the  coach 
finish  is  bound  to  occur  and  the  smart  appearance  of  the  car 
will  be  very  quickly  ruined. 

Removing  Mud — Mud  should  never  be  removed  dry.  If  a 
car  has  been  driven  through  mud,  and  returns  home  with  dry 
mud  on  it,  on  no  account  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  re- 
move the  mud  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  soaked  and  made 
soft  again. 

This  can  only  be  efficiently  done  in  two  ways.  The  better 
method  is  to  use  a  hose  with  a  good  supply  of  water  behind 
it,  but  it  is  most  important  to  note  that  the  water  should  not 
be  sprayed  on  to  the  car  with  any  force.  The  end  of  the  hose 
pipe  should  be  open  and  not  have  a  nozzle.  The  water  should 
flow  freely  without  rushing,  and  the  hose  should  be  held  up  to 
those  parts  of  the  car  which  are  being  cleaned,  so  that  the 
water  passes  freely  and  gently  down  the  mud,  soaking  into  it, 
and  allowing  it  to  flow  away  with  the  water.  Spraying  the 
water  on  with  force,  as  from  a  hose  with  a  jet,  only  drives  the 
mud  into  close  contact  with  the  varnish,  and  spoils  it  almost 
as  effectually  as  wiping  the  mud  off  with  a  cloth.  No  cloth 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  201 

and  no  rubbing  should  be  applied  to  any  part  of  the  car  until 
the  mud  has  been  completely  removed  by  a  gentle  flow  of 
water  from  the  hose. 

The  other  method  is  not  quite  so  efficient,  but  is  effective 
if  carefully  carried  out.  It  is  only  to  be  recommended  where 
water  supply  from  a  hose  cannot  be  obtained.  It  is  accom- 
plished by  removing  the  mud  with  a  very  large  sponge  capable 
of  holding  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  The  sponge 
should  be  thoroughly  filled  with  water  and  held  against  the 
sides  of  the  car,  working  from  the  top  downward.  It  should 
not  be  rubbed  along  the  panels  at  all,  but  should  be  gently 
squeezed,  so  that  the  water  flows  down  along  the  panels  natur- 
ally and  carries  the  mud  away  with  it. 

When  the  car  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  from  mud  or 
dust  in  either  of  the  two  ways  mentioned,  the  coach  work 
should  be  carefully  wiped  over  with  a  dry  sponge  and  after- 
ward with  a  chamois  wash-leather.  It  can  be  finally  polished 
with  a  dry  leather  or  with  any  of  the  polishing  cloths  sold  for 
the  purpose.  The  one  great  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  if  the 
coach  work  is  to  permanently  keep  its  glossy  coach  finish  is 
never  to  wipe  or  rub  it  while  there  is  mud  or  dust  upon  it,  but 
to  gently  clean  off  the  mud  or  dust  in  either  of  the  two  ways 
described. 

Care  in  Using  Water — It  is  necessary  to  keep  all  water 
away  from  the  engine  and  clutch.  The  bonnet  may  conven- 
iently be  kept  on  during  the  process  of  washing,  as  it  will 
protect  the  carbureter,  the  contact  maker,  and  the  magneto 
(where  such  is  fitted)  from  the  water,  but  it  should  be  taken 
off  to  be  cleaned,  and  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as 
the  car,  but  not  while  attached  to  it.  Water  splashed  about 
the  carbureter  or  magneto  will  inevitably  cause  trouble.  It 
requires  only  a  small  amount  of  water  in  the  carbureter  to 
completely  stop  the  engine,  while  water  on  the  magneto  will 
just  as  effectively  upset  the  ignition,  with  the  same  result. 

This  general  clean-down  after  each  day's  run  should  take 
place  at  night,  or  immediately  the  car  enters  the  garage.  If 
left  until  morning,  the  mud  will  harden  and  dry,  and  it  will 


202  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

not  only  be  more  difficult  and  take  longer  to  remove,  but  it  w.Ul 
also,  to  a  certain  extent,  damage  the  surface  of  the  coach-work. 

When  cars  are  run  in  districts  where  the  roads  are  treated 
with  coal  tar  or  other  mineral  binding  surfaces,  these  are 
likely  to  be  thrown  up  in  wet  weather,  and,  being  of  an  oily 
nature,  will  sometimes  attack  the  varnish  in  spots.  Where 
cars  are  run  on  such  roads,  it  is  imperative  that  they  should 
be  washed  immediately,  and  before  the  mud  dries,  otherwise, 
when  the  mud  is  cleared  away,  dull  spots  will  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  coach-work,  where  the  coal  tar  or  other  sub- 
stance has  splashed  up. 

Overheating — Immediately  a  car  comes  in  after  a  run,  it  is 
advisable  to  ascertain  if  any  overheating  has  taken  place.  Of 
course,  it  is  only  immediately  after  the  car  has  stopped  run- 
ning that  excessive  heating,  through  faulty  lubrication,  faulty 
circulation,  or  friction  set  up  through  badly  adjusted  parts, 
can  be  ascertained. 

The  driver  should  feel  the  brake  drums  both  on  the  back 
wheel  and  the  countershaft.  If  these  are  hot,  and  yet  there 
has  been  no  excessive  braking  strain  put  upon  the  car,  he  may 
take  it  for  granted  that  there  is  something  wrong  with  the 
brake  adjustment,  that  is  to  say,  probably  the  brakes  have 
been  actually  touching,  even  though  they  have  not  been  put 
into  actual  operation.  The  height  of  the  water  in  the  radi- 
ator should  be  ascertained,  as  by  this  means  the  driver  will  be 
able  to  guard  himself  against  running  the  car  short  of  water. 

Lubrication — The  overhauling  and  preparing  the  car  for 
each  day's  run  amounts  mainly  to  its  careful  lubrication,  to 
the  supplying  of  the  necessary  water,  lubricating  oil  and  gas- 
olene. The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  fill  up  the  radiator,  giving 
the  engine  a  few  turns  by  means  of  the  starting  handle,  so  as 
to  insure  that  there  is  no  air  lock,  and  that  the  water  is  cir- 
culating properly. 

The  oil  tank  should  be  examined  and  filled  up.  Where  drip 
feeds  are  used,  these  should  be  tested  to  make  certain  that 
each  one  is  dripping  properly  when  the  engine  is  running,  the 
engine  being  started  up  and  run  slowly  for  this  purpose.  It 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  203 

should  be  ascertained  that  there  is  sufficient  oil  in  the  crank 
chamber  and  in  the  change  speed  and  differential  casings. 
Different  cars  vary  as  regards  the  amount  of  lubrication  re- 
quired for  the  different  parts,  and  the  length  of  time  that  one 
charge  of  lubricant  to  each  part  will  carry  the  car  without 
excessive  friction. 

Too  much  oil  in  many  cases  is  almost  as  bad  as  not  enough, 
as  it  frequently  interferes  with  ignition  and  causes  unpleasant 
smoke.  By  watching  your  oiling  system  closely  you  will  soon 
be  able  to  regulate  it  carefully  and  have  just  the  proper 
amount.  Generally  speaking  a  car  requires  about  one  quart 
of  lubricating  oil  to  five  gallons  of  gasolene,  but,  of  course, 
this  varies  somewhat  with  different  cars  and  different  weather 
conditions. 

Generally  speaking,  we  may  say  that  all  those  parts  which 
are  fitted  with  oil  holes  as  distinct  from  actual  oil  feeds  or 
screw-down  grease  cups  should  be  oiled  each  morning,  and 
should,  in  the  case  of  a  long  run,  be  oiled  also  during  the  mid- 
day interval  of  running. 

Such  will  include  spring  shackles,  the  joints  of  the  levers 
and  connecting  links  operating  brakes,  the  bearings  in  which 
the  brake  levers  and  the  change  speed  lever  oscillate,  and  the 
links  and  levers  which  connect  these  up  to  the  brakes  and 
change  speed  gear,  respectively.  Also  the  bearings  in  which 
the  clutch  pedal  operates,  the  links  with  their  joints  which 
connect  it  to  the  collar  of  the  clutch,  the  heads  of  the  steering 
pivots  about  which  the  steering  wheel  moves,  the  links  with 
their  joints  and  levers  which  connect  the  steering  wheel  to  the 
road  wheels,  and  such  exposed  shafts  as  the  shaft  driving  the 
pump,  the  magneto,  the  fan,  the  lubricating  system,  etc. 

Screw-down  grease  lubricators  should  be  given  a  turn  or  a 
turn  and  a  half,  each  day.  In  those  cases  where  they  are 
fitted  to  running  mechanism  which  has  considerable  wear  and 
tear  on  it  they  may  be  screwed  down  further  or  more  fre- 
quently. 

Gasolene  tanks  should  be  filled,  and  in  cases  where  the  car- 
bureter is  pressure  fed  from  the  exhaust,  it  should  be  ascer- 


204  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

tained  that  the  pressure  system  is  in  order,  and  that  no  ob- 
struction or  leakage  is  taking  place  in  the  unions  of  the  pipes. 
By  pumping  up  with  the  auxiliary  hand  pump,  so  as  to  get 
pressure  in  the  pressure  tank  and  then  attempting  to  flood  the 
carbureter,  the  operator  may  determine  whether  the  feed  is 
working  properly.  The  same  precaution  should  be  taken  in  the 
case  of  the  lubrication  tank,  where  this  is  supplied  by  exhaust 
pressure  feed. 

Brakes — Having  made  sure  that  each  part  is  properly  lub- 
ricated, and  that  the  lubrication  system  is  in  working  order 
and  is  fully  supplied,  attention  should  be  directed  to  the 
brakes.  These  should  be  tested  each  time  that  the  car  goes 
out  and  before  it  goes  out.  The  brakes  may  be  disengaged, 
and  the  car  swung  backward  and  forward  by  hand  and  the 
brakes  applied  meantime,  when  it  will  be  readily  seen  whether 
they  come  into  full  operation  or  not. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  neither  the  hand  brake  nor  the  foot 
brake  lever  can  be  moved  to  its  fullest  extent — in  the  quadrant 
in  the  one  case,  or  the  slot  in  the  footboard  in  the  other.  If 
they  can  be  moved  so  as  to  come  into  such  contact,  the  brakes 
require  adjustment,  because  the  full  braking  effect  could  not 
be  applied  in  case  of  emergency. 

All  levers  and  operating  mechanism  should  be  tested  to  see 
that  there  is  no  excessive  looseness  at  any  of  the  joints. 
Where  such  is  found  to  be  the  case,  they  should  be  adjusted 
by  the  means  provided.  All  important  bolts  and  nuts,  especial- 
ly those  holding  the  steering  gear  and  its  connections,  should 
be  examined,  and,  if  slack,  should  be  carefully  tightened  up 
and  locked. 

Tires — The  tires  also  should  be  examined.  A  rule  should  be 
made  to  keep  the  tires  pumped  to  the  minimum  pressure 
recommended  by  the  makers,  and  for  this  purpose,  each  time 
a  car  goes  out  this  pressure  should  be  checked  by  means  of  a 
pressure  gauge,  and  if  not  sufficient  the  tires  should  be 
pumped  to  the  correct  pressure.  It  is  inadvisable  to  test  this 
pressure  when  the  car  comes  in  from  a  run,  as  the  tires  may 
then  be  hot,  and  the  pressure  be  above  normal.  If  the  driver 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  205 

travels  habitually  at  a  moderate  speed,  pulls  up  gradually,  and 
is  careful  at  corners,  even  a  lesser  air  pressure  than  the  mini- 
mum recommended  will  give  good  results. 

Chains — Where  the  drive  to  the  road  wheels  is  by  side 
chains  it  is  well  to  see  that  both  chains  are  properly  adjusted 
and  have  not  too  much  sag.  When  the  car  has  been  out  in 
muddy  weather,  the  chains  should  be  brushed  with  a  stiff 
brush  and  treated  with  one  or  other  of  the  plastic  plumbago 
lubricating  compounds.  This  is  best  done  by  jacking  the 
wheel  up  and  rotating  it,  so  that  each  part  of  the  chain  may 
be  easily  got  at. 

Ignition — As  regards  the  ignition,  little  attention  will  be 
required  if  it  is  of  the  magneto  type.  It  is  wise,  however,  to 
run  over  the  various  connections  to  see  that  they  are  tight, 
and  to  fill  up  the  oil  holes  at  each  end  of  the  magneto  arm- 
ature. In  the  case  of  coil  and  battery  ignition,  the  contact 
maker  should  be  inspected,  and,  if  dirty,  should  be  cleaned 
and  oiled.  In  all  cases  the  batteries  should  be  tested  by  means 
of  a  voltmeter,  and  a  spare  battery  should  be  kept,  fully 
charged. 

The  Monthly  Overhaul. 

In  addition  to  the  daily  examination  of  the  car,  it  is  advis- 
able to  go  over  it  periodically,  in  a  more  thorough  manner. 
If  the  car  is  used  continually  a  monthly  overhaul  should  be 
made,  but  if  only  used  occasionally  such  an  overhaul  can  be 
left  for  a  longer  period.  The  oftener  it  is  made,  however,  the 
better  a  car  may  be  expected  to  run,  and  the  longer  will  be 
its  life. 

Such  a  detailed  inspection  would  include  attention  to  the 
following: 

Valves — Examine  all  valves  and  grind  if  necessary,  mark- 
ing the  position  of  each,  so  as  to  return  it  to  the  right  place ; 
see  that  springs  have  not  shortened  and  are  the  same  strength, 
renewing  when  required ;  set  valves  to  open  correctly,  and 
carefully  wash  with  gasolene  before  replacing. 

Compression — Test   compression ;  if  bad,   trace  where   the 


206  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

leakage  occurs,  and  replace  faulty  sparking  plugs,  washers, 
etc.,  to  prevent  any  loss  of  compression ;  wash  and  clean 
sparking  plugs ;  set  points  and  test  for  spark  before  replacing. 

The  Pump — This  should  be  thoroughly  examined,  as  it  is  a 
very  important  part.  If  the  water  leaks  past  the  gland  it 
should  be  repacked  with  cotton  or  hemp,  and  tallow.  If  the 
pump  is  driven  by  friction,  it  will  sometimes  fail  through  in- 
sufficient grip  between  the  friction  wheel  and  the  flywheel  of 
the  motor.  The  surfaces  should  be  cleaned  with  gasolene,  and 
the  adjusting  spring  screwed  up  so  as  to  hold  the  friction 
wheel  more  firmly  against  the  flywheel. 

Pipes  and  Cocks — In  pipes,  etc.,  any  leakage  can  easily  be 
detected  and,  if  present,  the  pipes  should  be  brazed  or  the 
cocks  ground  in,  and  any  pipes  which  are  exposed  to  friction 
through  vibration  should  be  protected  or  stayed.  The  water 
pipes,  radiators,  etc.,  may  be  washed  out  by  keeping  a  stream 
of  water  flowing  through  from  a  hose  pipe  or  bucket  while  the 
engine  is  running,  the  overflow  carrying  away  any  accumula- 
tion of  dust  or  dirt. 

Batteries — The  batteries  should  be  tested  with  a  voltmeter 
to  see  that  the  voltage  is  not  below  4  volts.  In  case  the  elec- 
trolyte is  below  the  level  of  the  plates  the  cells  should  be  filled 
with  distilled  water  to  just  cover  the  plates. 

Ignition  System — Worn  or  frayed  wires  of  the  ignition  sys- 
tem must  be  replaced  by  new  ones ;  coil  or  contact  maker 
platinum  points  leveled  and  made  smooth ;  contact  maker 
washed  quite  clean  with  gasolene,  and  in  the  case  of 
a  wipe  contact,  freshly  lubricated  with  thin  oil,  such  as  is  used 
for  bicycles.  Contacts  will  require  to  be  re-set  to  get  the  best 
sparking  results.  In  the  case  of  high  tension  magneto  or 
synchronized  ignition,  the  distributer  should  be  cleaned. 

Gear  Box — The  top  of  the  gear  box  should  be  taken  off  and 
the  plug  at  the  bottom  opened  to  allow  dirty  oil  to  run  out. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  207 

The  box  may  then  be  filled  with  kerosene  and  the  engine  run 
for  about  one  minute  and  the  box  then  emptied  again.  The 
gear  wheels  and  bearings,  which  should  then  be  quite  clean, 
should  be  examined.  If  the  latter  are  loose  they  should  be 
tightened.  After  the  box  has  been  cleaned,  it  must  be  filled 
with  oil  or  grease  to  the  correct  level,  and  the  top  put  on.  In 
the  case  of  gear-driven  cars  the  same  procedure  should  be  fol- 
lowed with  the  differential  gear  and  live  axle  casing. 

Base  Chamber — The  oil  should  be  run  out  of  the  base  cham- 
ber, and  after  replacing  the  bottom  plug  a  pint  of  kerosene 
should  be  poured  in  and  the  engine  operated  by  hand  for  about 
a  dozen  turns,  care  being  taken  that  the  ignition  is  switched 
off.  The  plug  should  be  removed  once  more,  the  kerosene 
allowed  to  run  off,  the  plug  replaced,  and  lubricating  oil  in- 
serted up  to  the  overflow  plug.  On  no  account  should  the  en- 
gine be  run  until  this  has  been  done/  or  the  pistons  may  seize. 

Carbureter — The  carbureter  may  be  examined  next  to  see 
that  it  contains  no  sediment,  and  that  the  spray  nipple  is  quite 
clear.  The  needle  valve  that  controls  the  supply  of  gasolene 
may  require  grinding  in,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  float  is  not  punctured. 

Chains — These  should  be  removed,  cleaned  in  kerosene, 
soaked  in  melted  tallow  and  graphite,  and  then  lubricated. 

Brakes — The  brakes  should  be  examined  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, as  the  safety  of  the  automobilist  is  absolutely  dependent 
on  them.  Worn  cables  ought  to  be  re-placed,  friction  faces 
washed  and  renewed,  if  necessary,  and  all  bolts  tightened  up. 

Wheels — The  wheels  must  be  detached,  and  the  old  oil  or 
grease  wiped  off  the  axles  and  out  of  the  boxes.  Fresh  washers 
may  be  required  to  take  up  any  rattle  or  play.  Both  axles 
and  boxes  should  be  oiled  and  wheels  replaced  and  tightened 
up  until  there  is  no  side  shake.  Where  grease  is  used  for 
lubricating,  it  is  well  to  mix  a  little  oil  with  it. 

Nuts  and  Bolts — All  bolts  in  every  part  of  the  car,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  steering  gear,  springs,  etc.,  should  be  tried  with 


2o8  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

a  wrench  to  insure  their  being  quite  secure,  and,  where  pos- 
sible, nuts  should  be  pinned. 

Tires — Cuts  in  outer  covers  of  pneumatic  tires  should  be 
filled  with  some  of  the  special  preparations  supplied  for  the 
purpose  and  vulcanized  to  prevent  wet  getting  into  the  can- 
vas. All  large  cuts  and  blisters  should  be  strengthened  on 
the  inside  with  additional  patches  of  canvas  vulcanized  in 
position.  Inner  tubes  should  be  tested  and  repaired,  if  neces- 
sary. For  such  work  a  vulcanizer  is  indispensable. 

Lubrication — Grease  pots  should  be  cleaned  out,  refilled,  and 
then  screwed  up  tightly,  so  as  to  insure  the  grease  reaching 
the  bearings;  then  refilled  again,  and  so  left  ready  for  a  run. 
All  the  mechanism  in  connection  with  the  system  of  auto- 
matic lubrication  should  be  inspected  and  adjusted;  sight  feed 
lubricators  washed  and  their  needle  valves  adjusted,  or  ground 
in,  if  required ;  the  oil  tanks  or  cups  should  be  filled  and  tested 
to  see  that  they  are  in  working  order. 

Filters — These  should  be  opened  and  cleared  of  sediment. 
This  refers  to  the  inlet  filter  to  the  gasolene  tank,  the  outlet 
filter  to  the  carbureter,  the  filter  in  the  inlet  to  the  water  tank, 
the  filter  of  the  by-pass  or  exhaust  (either  to  carbureter  jacket, 
gasolene  tank,  or  oil  tank),  and  the  filters  in  oil  tanks  or  oil 
feeds,  as  well  as  the  filter  or  filters  in  the  bottom  of  the  crank 
case,  in  cases  where  the  oil  is  lifted  from  this  and  circulated 
through  the  engine  bearings  by  a  pump. 

COMPLETE  OVERHAUL^ 

In  addition  to  the  daily  or  weekly  inspection  of  the  car,  and 
the  attention  to  any  points  which  may  develop  during  the 
course  of  usage,  it  is  highly  advisable  to  occasionally  make  a 
complete  overhaul  of  the  whole  of  the  mechanism,  from  the 
engine  right  down  to  the  road  wheels. 

This  will  necessitate,  in  most  cases,  some  amount  of  re- 
pair, and  always  considerable  adjustment.  If,  after  an  over- 
haul such  as  described  here,  trouble  is  located,  the  remedy 
will  be  found  under  the  respective  headings  in  this  volume. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  209 

These   sections   should   be   studied   in   conjunction   with   this 
article,  where  a  complete  overhaul  is  contemplated. 

A  periodical  overhaul  enables  the  owner  to  assess  approxi- 
mately the  depreciation  of  his  car,  and  «to  ascertain  cases,  if 
any,  where  it  has  been  wrongly  treated,  either  negatively, 
through  neglect,  or  positively,  through  bad  methods  of  adjust- 
ment or  repair. 

The  mechanism  of  different  cars  varies  very  considerably, 
and,  therefore,  different  methods  in  overhauling  have  to  be 
adopted  according  to  the  different  types  6f  construction.  To 
facilitate  the  reader,  we  have  divided  the  subject  up  into 
separate  and  distinct  sections,  and  naturally  deal  first  with 
the  engine. 

The   Engine. 

It  is,  of  course,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  opera- 
tor should  ascertain  the  condition  of  the  pistons  and  their 
the  bottom  half  of  drank  case  is  cast  separately,  and  the  bear- 
ings, and  the  crankshaft  with  its  crank  pin  bearings.  When 
the  bottom  half  of  crank  case  is  cast  separately,  and  the  bear- 
ings hung  from  the  top  in  brackets,  the  big  ends  of  the  con- 
necting rods  and  the  crankshaft  bearings  can  be  examined 
by  simply  taking  off  the  bottom  half  of  the  crank  case.  In 
cases  where  pump  lubrication  is  applied  there  is  often  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  piping  and  accessory  mechanism  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  crank  case,  which  will  have  to  be  dis- 
mantled before  the  crank  case  bottom  can  be  taken  off. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  say  that,  in  dismantling  any  part, 
it  is  necessary  to  carefully  examine  and  clearr  all  nuts,  bolts, 
washers,  universal  joints,  shafts,  and  bearing  pins  before  they 
are  put  together  again,  and  it  is  advisable  to  keep  the  different 
parts  of  one  unit  in  the  construction  separate,  so  that,  in 
reassembling  that  one  unit,  all  its  different  parts  will  be 
found  in  one  place.  This  will  considerably  simplify  the  reas- 
sembling of  any  unit  taken  to  pieces.  To  assist  in  this,  it  will 
be  found  a  great  advantage  to  have  a  number  of  boxes  of  vari- 
ous sizes.  Some  of  them  will  require  to  be  fairly  large,  while 
others,  such  as,  say,  a  box  to  hold  the  component  parts  of  the 


2io  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

magneto  ignition  system,  would  not  necessarily  require  to  be 
so  big.  To  take  down  the  engine,  'the  best  procedure  is  to 
take  the  crank  pin  bearings  apart  and  release  the  big  ends 
of  the  connecting  rods,  in  which  case  the  pistons  and  connect- 
ing rods  will  come  away  with  the  cylinders.  This  is  a  great 
advantage  when  we  come  to  take  the  cylinders  off,  because 
it  is  much  better  'to  be  able  to  take  out  and  put  in  the  pistons 
while  we  can  hold  the  cylinders  in  a  convenient  position  on 
the  bench,  than  to  have  to  lift  the  cylinders  off  the  pistons. 
In  cases  where  the  cylinders  are  cast  in  pairs,  or  in  fours,  this 
becomes  a  very  awkward  job,  especially  to  reassemble,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  number  of  pistons  which  have  to  be 
fitted  into  the  cylinders,  but  also  on  account  of  the  weight 
which  has  to  be  supported  and  put  into  position.  It  should 
be  remembered,  therefore,  that  when  the  big  ends  of  the  pis- 
tons can  be  got  at  it  is  well  to  free  them  from  the  crank  shaft 
before  commencing  to  take  the  cylinders  off.  In  some  cases 
instead  of  the  bottom  half  of  the  crank  case  coming  away  as 
a  separate  cover,  it  will  be  found  that  inspection  doors  are 
fitted  in  the  side  of  the  crank  case,  and  very  often  these  are 
of  sufficient  size  to  enable  the  big  ends  of  the  connecting  rods 
to  be  uncoupled,  and  so  release  the  cylinders  and  pistons 
together. 

Removing  the  Cylinders — In  cases  where  no  provision  is 
made  in  the  crank  case  for  getting  at  the  big  end  bearings, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  first  remove  the  cylinders.  In  prac- 
tically every  case  these  are  bolted  down  on  to  a  flat  surface 
on  the  top  of  the  crank  case  by  means  of  four  or  more  studs 
and  nuts,  the  studs  being  screwed  into  the  aluminum  top  of 
the  crank  case,  and  the  nuts  holding  the  cylinders  down  by 
a  flange — generally  a  sq  are  flange  with  the  nuts  at  the  four 
corners.  Before  the  cylinders  can  be  taken  off,  the  piping  will 
necessarily  have  to  be  taken  down,  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  piping  generally  will  determine  which  section  of  it  should 
be  taken  down  first.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  will  be  found 
advisable  to  first  disconnect  the  carbureter.  In  doing  this 
the  connecting  rods  and  links  which  connect  the  carbureter 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  211 

to  the  operating  links,  or  the  accelerator,  will  first  have  to 
be  taken  down,  and  the  best  plan  is  to  see  that,  when  these 
rods  and  levers  are  taken  off,  the  numerous  pins  by  which  they 
are  connected  are  put  back  into  their  respective  holes,  so  that 
the  same  pin  will  go  back  into  the  same  place  when  the  parts 
are  being  assembled  again. 

The  carbureter  having  been  taken  off,  no  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  next  dismantling  the  gas  pipes  leading  to  the 
inlet  valves.  In  some  engines  there  is  no  large  amount  of 
piping,  as  it  has  become  the  more  popular  practice  to  cast  the 
ports  for  the  inlet  valves  in  the  walls  of  .the  cylinders  them- 
selves. In  other  practice  it  will  be  found  that  all  the  pipes 
leading  to  all  the  inlets  are  cast  as  one  piece,  in  which  case, 
of  course,  the  dismantling  is  very  easy,  they  being  held  on 
generally  by  not  more  than  four  nuts  (or  in  some  cases  yokes 
are  used,  so  that  one  nut  can  hold  more  than  one  part  and 
make  more  than  one  joint).  It  is  good  practice  before  break- 
ing any  of  the  joints  of  the  inlet  pipes,  exhaust  pipes,  or  water 
connections,  to  first  brush  kerosene  around  them,  so  that  the 
packing;  whatever  it  is,  may  be  softened,  and  allow  the  joints 
to  come  away  without  tearing  the  packing.  In  the  case  of  the 
gas  inlet  joints  these  will  generally  be  found  to  be  made  of 
thick  paper  or  card  soaked  in  linseed  oil,  and  it  will  save  the 
trouble  of  cutting  new  packing  or  washers,  if  care  is  taken, 
in  taking  off  the  pipes  and  breaking  the  joints,  not  to  break 
this.  The  time  occupied  in  allowing  the  proper  soaking  and 
softening  of  the  paper  is  well  worth  expending. 

Having  taken  off  all  the  inlet  piping,  the  exhaust  piping 
should  next  be  tackled.  It  will  be  found  in  the  majority  of 
cases  that  the  joint  between  the  exhaust  pipes  and  the  cylin- 
ders will  be  made  by  thin  asbestos  washers ;  in  most  cases  it 
pays  to  put  in  new  asbestos  washers,  but  if  this  is  not  done  it  is 
advisable  to  soften  with  water  those  already  in  position  to  pre- 
vent breaking  when  the  joint  is  taken  apart.  The  exhaust 
piping  will  be  found  to  be  connected  to  the  piping  which  leads 
underneath  the  car  to  the  muffler  generally  by  means  of  unions. 
Only  the  first  of  these  unions  should  be  unscrewed,  as  it  will 


212  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

seldom  be  necessary  to  take  out  the  whole  of  the  exhaust  pip- 
ing, the  object  for  the  present  being  only  to  free  the  engine 
cylinders  so  that  they  can  be  taken  off. 

Governing  rods  and  such-like  appliances  operating  and 
governing  low  tension  igniters  on  or  near  the  tops  of  the 
cylinders  will  have  to  be  uncoupled,  and  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  method  of  adjustment  as  to  their  length, 
or  the  angularity  of  the  levers  which  operate  them,  should  be 
carefully  marked  before  unscrewing  any  of  the  parts.  Where 
the  two  parts  come  together  with  a  flush  surface  a  fine  line 
filed  across  the  two  surfaces  or  edges  with  a  small,  smooth  file 
will  locate  them  for  reassembling,  or,  if  the  surfaces  do  not 
come  together  in  a  way  which  allows  of  convenient  use  of 
the  file,  two  small  center  dots,  made  with  a  center  punch,  and 
adjacent  to  each  other,  will  be  a  sufficient  guide.  Too  much 
emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  this  careful  ascertaining  before- 
hand of  the  position  of  the  parts,  and  marking  them  so  that 
they  can  be  afterward  put  together  in  exactly  the  same  order 
and  with  exactly  the  same  adjustment.  Any  time  spent  in 
making  the  marks,  or  even  in  making  a  rough  diagram  or 
sketch,  will  be  time  well  spent,  and  may  save  considerable 
trouble,  and  even  injury  to  the  car  subsequently. 

As  regards  the  wiring  of  the  ignition,  this  will  be  dealt  with 
later  among  the  engine  accessories.  But  it  is  always  advis- 
able to  remove  the  sparking  plugs  so  that  they  will  not  be 
likely  to  get  injured  by  heavy  objects  coming  against  them, 
such  as  spanners  or  parts  of  the  inlet  or  outlet  tubing.  In 
the  case  of  low-tension  ignition,  it  is  best  to  leave  the  igniters 
in  their  places  on  the  cylinders.  With  the  cylinder  on  the 
bench  these  can  be  got  at  in  a  much  more  convenient  manner. 

The  water  circulation  pipes  will  have  to  be  cleared  from 
the  cylinders  before  they  can  be  lifted  from  the  engine.  Fre- 
quently they  are  kept  together  by  rubber  tubes,  which  fit  over 
the  adjacent  ends  of  copper  or  brass  tubes,  and  are  held  to- 
gether by  band  clips.  These  band  clips  being  loosened,  and 
the  rubber  tubing  carefully  lifted  from  contact  with  the  tubes, 
they  will  be  free  to  move,  and  they  may  be  slipped  from  one 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  213 

tube  to  the  other,  until  the  joint  between  the  two  tubes  is  ex- 
posed. The  undoing  of  these  joints  will  leave  the  cylinders 
free  of  each  other  and  also  free  from  the  radiator  and  the 
pump.  The  pump  is  generally  applied  as  part  of  the  engine 
mechanism,  and  attached  to  the  crank  chamber  casting,  and 
it  is  not  usually  necessary  to  dismantle  it  in  order  to  take 
off  the  cylinders. 

If  the  big  end  bearings  cannot  be  previously  uncoupled,  the 
cylinders  will  have  to  be  lifted  off,  leaving  the  pistons,  with 
their  rings  in  position,  standing  up  on  the'  top  of  the  connect- 
ing rods.  This  means,  of  course,  that  in  lifting  off  the  cylin- 
ders they  must  be  pulled  up  vertically  and  quite  straight.  As 
they  are  heavy  masses  of  metal,  care  must  be  taken  in  dt>ing 
this ;  otherwise  should  they  be  allowed  to  tilt  over,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  they  will  put  a  great  strain  on  the  pistons  and  the 
connecting  rods,  in  some  cases  setting  up  such  a  strain  as  to 
actually  bend  the  connecting  rods,  when  it  is  obvious  that 
the  bearings  will  be  interfered  with,  so  that  one  or  other  of 
the  connecting  rod  bearings  will  not  lie  parallel  with  its  jour- 
nal when  it  is  assembled  again.  It  is  very  necessary  to  take 
considerable  care  when  lifting  off  the  cylinders.  One  man 
standing  astride  the  chassis  will  generally  be  found  capable  of 
lifting  them  off,  and  there  will  be  less  likelihood  of  a  cylinder 
being  tilted  sideways  than  if  two  men  were  to  try  to  lift  it  off 
at  the  same  time. 

In  cases  where  the  big  end  bearings  can  be  previously  un- 
coupled, it  will  be  advisable  that  someone  should  be  ready,  while 
the  cylinders  are  being  lifted,  to  push  up  the  connecting  rods, 
so  as  to  insure  the  pistons  and  connecting  rods  coming  away 
with  the  cylinders;  that  is  to  say,  so  that  the  cylinder  with 
its  piston  and  connecting  rod  can  be  taken  completely  away 
at  the  same  time.  If  the  inlet  and  exhaust  valve  passages 
are  blocked  up  with  a  linen  rag — not  cotton  waste — the  suc- 
tion of  the  piston  inside  the  cylinder  will  tend  to  keep  it  in 
place,  and  allow  it  to  be  drawn  up  along  with  the  cylinder,  but 
it  is  advisable  to  have  the  help  of  a  second  person  in  order  to 


2i4  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

ascertain  and  insure  that  the  piston  and  connecting  rod  are 
remaining  in  the  cylinder  and  coming  away  with  it. 

In  cases  of  large  cars,  and  especially  where  four  cylinders 
are  cast  "en  bloc,"  the  weight  of  the  cylinders  may  prove  too 
much  for  one  man  to  lift,  and  it  will  then  be  advisable  to 
rig  up  some  kind  of  hoisting  tackle,  so  that  the  power  of  two 
or  more  men  may  be  applied  somewhere  near  the  center  of  the 
mass  in  order  to  prevent  the  tilting  over  so  likely  to  cause 
injury. 

The  cylinders  having  been  taken  off,  they  should  be  laid 
aside,  with  their  pistons  in  them,  and  it  will  be  advisable 
to  mark  the  pistons,  as  it  is  necessary  that  these  should  not 
be  turned  round  in  their  cylinders.  Very  often  the  center  line 
of  the  cylinder  is  not  the  center  line  of  the  connecting  rod 
bearings  or  the  crank  pin  bearings,  so  that  it  will  be  seen  that 
if  the  pistons  were  turned  round  in  their  cylinders  these  bear- 
ings might  not  go  together  again,  and  considerable  trouble 
might  be  caused  in  ascertaining  why  they  did  not  do  so  prop- 
erly. Just  a  slight  file  cut  across  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder 
and  the  mouth  of  the  piston  is  sufficient  to  insure  locating 
them  again  accurately. 

The  Crankshaft — The  crankshaft  will  now  be  exposed  in 
its  bearings,  and  free  from  the  weight  of  the  connecting  rods 
and  pistons.  By  moving  it  up  and  down  and  sideways,  the 
operator  may  ascertain  if  there  is  any  great  wear  in  its  main 
bearings.  This  should  be  done  with  the  clutch  disengaged, 
and  the  clutch  should  preferably  be  held  out  of  engagement 
by  blocking  the  clutch  pedal  in  some  way,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  clutch  from  holding  the  shaft  centrally  and  relieve  it  of  a 
considerable  amount  of  weight.  It  will  be  obvious  that  the 
weight  of  the  flywheel  will  tend  to  keep  the  crankshaft  down 
in  the  bottom  of  those  bearings  near  the  flywheel  end,  and, 
therefore,  it  is  advisable  to  put  a  rope  or  strap  round  the  crank- 
shaft at  this  end,  in  order  to  lift  it  more  easily  and  ascertain 
if  there  is  any  appreciable  up-and-down  movement.  The  other 
end  of  the  crankshaft  will  be  very  easily  moved  for  ascer- 
taining this,  as  it  is  comparatively  light.  If  there  appears  to 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  215 

be  an  undue  amount  of  slackness  in  the  bearings — this  can  be 
judged  best  by  an  experienced  mechanic — it  will  be  advisable 
to  take  off  the  brasses  which  hold  the  bearings  together.  If 
the  crankshaft  is  hung  from  brackets  cast  with  the  top  part  of 
the  crank  case,  it  is  obvious  that  these  caps  or  brackets  will 
be  actually  holding  up  the  crankshaft,  so  that  before  undoing 
them  it  will  be  advisable  to  block  up  the  crankshaft  in  some 
way  by  blocks  of  wood  or  by  hanging  it  by  ropes  from  pieces 
of  wood  placed  across  the  opening  in  the  crank  case  where 
the  cylinders  are  attached.  Otherwise,  after  undoing  one  or 
two  of  the  bearings,  so  much  strain  might  be  put  on  the  others 
as  to  cause  the  weight  of  the  crankshaft  to  strip  the  threads  of 
the  holding  up  bolts. 

In  some  cases,  as  in  the  earlier  types  of  engines,  the  crank 
case  is  divided  horizontally  in  a  plane  which  intersects  the 
crankshaft  axis.  In  such  a  case,  the  cylinders  having  been 
removed  and  the  bolts  holding  the  two  halves  together  having 
been  taken  out,  the  whole  of  the  top  half  of  the  crank  case 
can  be  taken  away.  The  crankshaft  with  its  bearings  will  then 
be  exposed  to  view.  The  camshafts  will  generally  come  away 
with  the  top  half  of  the  crank  case,  and  therefore  it  will  be 
necessary  before  taking  this  off  to  take  down  the  aluminum 
casing  which  encircles  the  timing  gear  wheels  at  the  end  of 
the  crank  case. 

In  more  modern  practice,  however,  the  camshafts — some- 
times only  one,  and  sometimes  two,  one  on  each  side — are 
slipped  through  bodily  from  one  end,  generally  the  front  end, 
and  to  take  them  out  it  is  necessary  to  take  off  the  front  cover 
incasing  them,  and  also  to  take  off  the  radiator,  in  order  to 
allow  them  to  be  drawn  forward.  It  is  not  often  that  the 
camshafts  need  attention,  unless  considerable  noise  has  been 
ascertained  to  be  taking  place  here,  or  when  the  wheels  which 
drive  them  feel  loose. 

The  taking  off  of  the  radiator  is  a  very  simple  operation. 
By  undoing  four  nuts,  two  on  each  end,  which  bolt  down  to 
the  chassis  frame,  the  radiator  may  be  bodily  removed.  The 


216  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

support  at  its  top  is  usually  provided  by  means  of  the  outlet 
water  pipe  itself. 

The  Magneto — In  cases  where  a  magneto  is  fitted,  it  is  well 
to  detach  this  from  the  engine  and  lay  it  on  one  side,  so  that 
it  will  not  be  injured  either  by  heavy  objects  or  by  oil  which 
may  be  used  for  cleaning  purposes.  As  a  rule,  it  is  one  of 
those  parts  which  can  be  attached  to  the  engine  last  when  re- 
assembling. It  may,  therefore,  be  taken  completely  away ; 
but  before  doing  so  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  coupling 
which  couples  it  to  the  shaft  which  drives  it  will  have  to  be 
marked.  Supposing  the  magneto  is  driven  by  a  chain,  it  will 
only  be  necessary  to  mark  a  link  of  the  chain  and  a  tooth  of 
the  chain-wheel  on  the  magneto,  and,  similarly,  a  link  of  the 
chain  and  a  tooth  of  the  chain-wheel  which  drives  it.  One 
of  these  links  should  also  be  marked  to  show  which  is  the  top 
and  which  is  the  under  side  of  the  chain.  If  they  are  then  put 
back  with  these  marks  adjacent  to  each  other  there  will  be  no 
fear  of  the  magneto  being  put  out  of  time.  These  same  re- 
marks apply,  throughout  the  engine  mechanism,  to  any  wheels 
which  may  be  taken  out  of  mesh  with  each  other,  but  before 
making  any  marks  it  is  well  to  be  certain  that  no  marks  al- 
ready exist,  or  that  if  such  marks  do  exist  they  coincide.  Thus, 
to  insure  that  a  set  of  toothed  gears  come  together  in  the 
same  relative  positions,  the  tooth  of  one,  and  the  space  in  the 
other  with  which  the  tooth  engages,  should  be  marked. 
.Generally,  just  a  center  punch  mark  will  be  found  sufficient, 
and  if  the  wheels  are  already  marked  new  marking  is,  of 
course,  unnecessary.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to 
thoroughly  understand  the  meaning  of  any  marking  which 
happens  to  be  there,  and  to  provide  against  the  danger  of  the 
relative  marks  being  forgotten,  it  is  often  well  to  make  a 
rough  diagram  by  drawing  circles  adjacent  to  each  other  rep- 
resenting the  wheels — such  as  the  timing  wheels  operating 
the  valve  shafts  of  the  magneto — on  a  piece  of  paper,  and  to 
mark  them  similarly  to  the  marks  on  the  wheels  themselves. 
This  can  be  easily  referred  to  afterward  when  reassembling. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  in  no  case  should  two 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  217 

wheels  be  taken  out  of  mesh  with  each  other  without  definitely 
ascertaining  that  they  can  be  put  together  in  exactly  the  same 
relative  positions,  and  any  time  spent  in  thoroughly  determi- 
ning that  this  can  be  done  will  be  time  saved. 

The  Bearings — The  engine  being  completely  dismantled,  all 
the  parts  subjected  to  wear  or  movement  should  be  examined, 
so  as  to  determine  their  condition  and  decide  on  any  replace- 
ment or  adjustment  that  may  become  necessary. 

If  the  engine  has  seemed  noisy,  or  a  knock  has  been  heard, 
the  cause  of  it  may  be  found  in  any  of  the  three  sets  of  bear- 
ings— the  crankshaft  or  main  bearings,  the  big  ends  of  the 
connecting  rods,  or  the  gudgeon  pins  (or  small  ends  of  the 
connecting  rods). 

The  test  for  play  in  the  main  bearings  must  be  made  when 
the  brasses — top  and  bottom — are  in  position  and  screwed 
down  tightly  upon  each  other.  The  end  bearing  next  the  fly- 
wheel and  clutch  Avill  be  the  most  likely  to  have  worn  slightly. 

Exactly  the  same  considerations  apply  in  the  case  of  the  big 
ends  of  the  connecting  rods.  These  are,  of  course,  easier  to 
get  at,  and  to  test  for  slackness,  than  is  the  case  with  the  big 
main  bearing  of  the  crankshaft.  The  rods  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  pistons  by  withdrawing  the  gudgeon  pins,  which, 
when  the  locking  screws,  or  whatever  else  is  used  to  hold  them 
firmly  in  the  piston,  have  been  removed,  will  come  out  end- 
ways, thus  freeing  the  connecting  rod. 

The  Gudgeon  Pins — It  will  be  necessary  before  withdraw- 
ing the  gudgeon  (piston)  pins  to  see  if  they  are  tight  in  the 
piston— which,  of  course,  they  should  be.  If  they  are  slack, 
the  cause  of  the  slackness  should  be  ascertained.  If  it  arises 
from  not  being  properly  locked  up  in  the  bosses  in  the  piston, 
the  remedy  is  obvious.  If,  however,  the  cause  is  that  the  pin, 
or  the  holes,  in  which  it  should  be  a  god  fit,  are  worn,  a 
new  pin  will  be  the  only  real  remedy. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  carefully  examine  to  see  whether 
the  pin  can  move  endways  in  the  piston.  It  should  not  be 
able  to  do  this,  otherwise  it  may  protrude  through  the  piston 


2i8  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

side,  and,  as  the  pin  is  invariably  hardened  and  the  cylinder 
is  of  comparatively  soft  metal,  it  will  inevitably  cut  grooves 
in  the  inside  of  the  cylinder  walls,  which  will  result  in  loss  of 
compression,  and  consequently  power,  and  other  troublesome 
symptoms. 

A  Scored  Bearing — There  is  another  point  about  all  the 
engine  bearings  which  should  receive  attention.  They  may 
be  found  to  be  cut  or  scored  on  their  surfaces.  This  is  indi- 
cated by  lines  and  grooves  around  them  in  the  direction  of  ro- 
tation, some  of  the  deeper  of  these  lines  in  the  brasses  show- 
ing a  darker  color.  An  examination  of  these  lines  with  a 
magnifying  glass  will  disclose  the  fact  that  the  metal  has  been 
actually  torn  out  in  these  grooves  or  lines.  This  denotes  want 
of  proper  lubrication.  The  darker  color  in  the  deep  parts  of 
the  grooves  gives  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  bearings  have 
actually  at  some  time,  or  times,  run  hot. 

This  condition  of  affairs  may  have  been  arrived  at  gradu- 
ally; or  it  may  have  been  set  up  in  the  course  of  one  short 
run  during  which  the  engine  had  been  allowed  to  run  dry. 
Whatever  the  cause,  the  condition  is  a  serious  one,  and  re- 
quires immediate  attention,  for  however  well  a  scored  or  cut 
bearing  may  be  lubricated,  it  will  always  tend  to  run  hot,  and 
its  condition  will  gradually,  but  inevitably,  get  worse.  The 
remedy  for  this  trouble  is  the  careful  re-scraping  of  the  brasses. 

The  Cylinders  and  Pistons — An  examination  of  the  cylin- 
ders and  pistons  should  next  be  made.  We  will  suppose  that 
the  valves  have  been  taken  out,  care  being  taken  to  first  mark 
them,  so  as  to  be  able  to  determine  which  cylinder  they  have 
come  out  of  (one,  two,  three,  or  four  filed  notches  at  the 
edge  of  their  heads  will  suffice  for  this  purpose,  if  they  are 
not  already  marked).  We  will  deal  first  with  the  wearing  sur- 
faces between  piston  and  cylinder 

As  regards  the  bore  of  the  cylinder,  if  nothing  untoward 
has  happened — such  as  the  coming  adrift  of  a  gudgeon  pin — 
the  bore  may  be  expected  to  be  smooth  to  the  touch  and  highly 
polished. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  219 

If  it  is  so  all  round  and  for  the  length  of  the  piston's  travel, 
we  may  take  it  that  nothing  very  much  the  matter  exists.  If, 
however,  the  engine  has  been  badlv  treated,  allowed  to  get 
too  hot,  or  insufficiently  lubricated,  we  may  find  scored  lines 
running  up  and  down  the  cylinder  in  the  direction  of  the 
travel  of  the  piston.  This  can  only  be  remedied  by  compe- 
tent engineers. 

The  piston  should  now  be  inspected.  The  piston  fits  com- 
paratively loosely  in  the  cylinder,  as  it  must  at  all  times  move 
freely  within  it,  and  the  enormous  variations  in  the  tempera- 
tures inside  the  cylinder  cause  varying  differences  in  size 
between  the  cylinder  bore  and  the  outside  of  the  piston. 
It  is  unlikely,  therefore,  that  any  wear  of  importance  will 
be  found  to  have  taken  place  on  the  actual  surface  of  the 
piston  itself.  It  is  the  spring  piston  rings  which  make  the 
close  contact  between  cylinder  walls  and  piston  which  is  so 
necessary  to  insure  the  fullest  possible  measure  of  compres- 
sion and  to  prevent  blowing  past  into  the  crank  chamber  of 
any  of  the  expanding  gases  on  the  power  stroke.  The  removal, 
cleaning,  and  replacing  of  the  piston  rings  is  dealt  with  in 
another  chapter. 

As  to  Carbon  Deposit — Next  examine  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, valve  chamber,  and  inlet  and  exhaust  ports  and  passages 
to  ascertain  whether  there  is  any  excess  of  carbon  deposit. 
There  will,  of  course,  always  be  a  certain  amount,  depend- 
ent on  the  length  of  time  the  engine  has  been  running  since 
the  last  clean  out,  or  since  it  first  commenced  work.  An  ex- 
cessive amount  will  show  itself  by  lumps  and  ridges  of  hard 
carbon,  which  may  sometimes  look  like  a  rough  part  of  the 
casting,  but  which,  if  struck  with  a  chisel  or  other  sharp- 
ended  instrument,  will  shell  or  flake  off. 

The  valves  should  be  examined,  and  any  which  are  found 
to  be  pitted  on  their  seats  may  be  carefully  ground  in  the 
usual  way,  taking  care  to  keep  the  emery  from  the  inside  of 
the  cylinder  or  from  the  guide  through  which  the  valve  stem 
passes. 

While  the  cylinders  are  off,  advantage  may  be  taken  of  their 


220  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

accessibility  to  examine  the  water  jackets,  and  see  if  any 
furring  up  or  corrosion  has  taken  place. 

The  Valve  Gear — In  very  few  cases  will  the  valve  gear  re- 
quire any  attention.  The  plates  which  hold  down  the  valve 
plungers  are  usually  screwed  down  on  the  top  of  the  crank 
case,  and,  when  these  are  taken  off,  the  plungers  can  be  taken 
out  complete  in  their  guides.  Various  types  of  plungers  are 
used.  Some  have  simply  solid  hardened  steel  heads  rest- 
ing against  the  cam,  and  which  the  cam  rotates  against  and 
lifts.  Others  have  hardened  steel  balls  lying  in  sockets,  while 
others  again — and  these  the  majority — have  rollers  running 
against  the  cam.  These  rollers  are  usually  hardened,  and 
rotate  on  hardened  steel  pins,  so  that  it  is  unlikely  any  wear 
will  take  place  here.  If,  however,  wear  does  occur,  roller  and 
pin  should  be  replaced. 

The  cams  on  the  camshafts  should  next  be  examined,  and 
if  the  wear  on  their  bearing  surfaces  be  excessive,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  replace  them ;  this,  however,  will  rarely  happen, 
for  as  a  rule  the  wear  of  the  cam  is  pretty  equal  all  around,  and 
it  does  not  much  affect  the  lift.  With  cams  as  at  present  con- 
structed, machined  out  of  the  solid  with  the  camshaft  and 
hardened  and  ground,  wear  will  hardly  ever  be  found  to  have 
taken  place.  What  applies  to  the  camshaft  and  the  plungers 
applies  also  to  the  cams  operating  the  low  tension  igniters, 
if  such  are  fitted.  In  this  case,  owing  to  the  very  light  nature 
of  the  work  which  they  have  to  accomplish,  it  is  not  likely 
that  any  wear  which  would  upset  their  operation  will  be  found. 

The  Lubrication  System. 

The  lubrication  of  the  bearings  will  require  attention.  All 
lubricating  pipes  should  be  taken  out  and  thoroughly  cleaned, 
which  is  best  done  by  forcing  kerosene  through  them.  This 
will  clear  out  all  gummed-up  oil  which  may  be  obstructing  the 
passages.  The  oil  pump,  where  one  is  fitted,  should  be  dis- 
mantled, and  any  accumulated  deposit  cleaned  out  with  kero- 
sene or  gasolene.  The  latter  is  the  easier  method,  but  more 
expensive.  Where  any  stale  gasolene  is  at  hand,  however,  it 
may  be  conveniently  used  for  this  purpose. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  221 

It  is  not  likely  that  the  mechanism  of  the  oil  pump  will 
suffer  very  much  from  wear,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  con- 
stantly rotating  in  oil,  and  has  no  very  heavy  duties  to  per- 
form. It  is  well  to  see  that  all  the  oil  "leads,"  or  pipes,  con- 
ducting the  oil  through  the  crank  case  casting  to  the  main 
bearings  of  the  engine,  are  quite  clear,  and  that  there  is  a 
through  way  into  the  bearings ;  if  not,  the  obstruction  must  be 
removed.  Many  crankshafts  are  made  with  oil  "leads"  run- 
ning right  through  the  center  of  them  and  up  the  crank  webs 
and  out  through  the  crank  pins.  It  may  be  easily  ascertained 
whether  these  are  clear  by  filling  up  the  "leads"  with  oil  or 
kerosene  and  then  blowing  through  with  a  tire  pump.  If  the 
oil  is  easily  forced  through  to  the  other  end  of  the  oil  "lead," 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  there  is  no  obstruction.  While 
overhauling  the  lubrication,  it  will  be  well  to  examine  the 
sight  feed  lubricators  on  the  dashboard  where  such  are  fitted, 
and  to  clean  out  the  glasses  to  insure  their  working  correctly. 
Taking  Down  the  Clutch. 

We  should  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  clutch.  The 
procedure  will  vary  according  to  the  type  of  clutch  used,  and 
to  the  method  in  which  it  is  applied  and  fixed.  As  a  rule, 
there  is  some  form  of  detachable  coupling  between  the  clutch 
and  the  gear  box,  which,  when  detached,  leaves  sufficient  room 
between  the  two  to  allow  of  the  dismantling  of  the  clutch. 
Where  such  is  not  fitted,  as  in  some  of  the  earlier  types  of 
cars,  it  may  be  necessary  to  unbolt  the  gear  box  and  shift  it 
bodily  backward  on  the  chassis,  so  as  to  make  room  for  the 
removal  of  the  clutch.  The  moving  of  the  gear  box  will  nec- 
essitate the  uncoupling  of  the  gear  control  levers,  and  some- 
times other  levers.  This  will  be  referred  to  when  we  come 
to  the  overhauling  of  the  gear  case. 

The  clutch  is  generally  dismantled  by  uncoupling  the  fork 
which  encircles  the  collar  and  allows  of  the  disengaging  of  the 
clutch,  either  by  pressing  it  in,  or  drawing  it  out,  according 
to  the  construction  of  the  clutch.  This  will  have  to  be  re- 
moved, and  with  it  may  be  removed  the  bracket  or  brackets 
carrying  the  rocking  shaft  on  which  it  is  pivoted.  The  proce- 


222  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

dure  then  will  vary  considerably  according  to  the  type  of 
clutch,  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  in  all  cases  it  is  advisable 
to  plainly  mark  the  parts  as  they  are  taken  asunder,  so  that 
they  may  all  be  put  together  again  in  their  relative  positions. 

The  clutch  having  been  freed  from  the  fork,  and  the  nec- 
essary bolts  and  nuts  undone,  it  can  be  pulled  out  endways. 
This  will  necessitate  the  uncoupling  of  that  portion  which  the 
spring  presses  against  in  forcing  the  two  parts  of  the  clutch 
into  engagement,  and  this  should  be  done  carefully,  other- 
wise the  pressure  of  the  spring,  when  the  parts  are  released, 
may  cause  some  damage.  The  several  necessities  of  the  case 
will  indicate  the  procedure,  which  varies  with  different  types 
of  cars. 

The  adjustment  of  the  clutch  can  only  be  done  after  it  is 
assembled  again,  and  provision  is  always  made  for  adjust- 
ment, but  it  will  not  often  be  found  that  such  adjustment 
is  necessary,  as  the  driver  will  naturally  make  the  adjust- 
ments as  they  become  necessary  in  the  ordinary  course  of  at- 
tention to  the  car. 

Where  a  new  clutch  leather  has  been  put  in,  or  where  new 
disks  or  plates  have  been  applied,  it  may  be  that  considerable 
adjustment  will  be  necessary.  The  user  will  be  the  best 
judge  as  to  the  amount  of  play  the  clutch  should  have  when  in 
the  disengaged  position,  and  how  far  the  clutch  pedal  should 
be  back  when  the  clutch  is  in  engagement.  For  full  particu- 
lars as  to  the  proper  treatment  of  the  clutch. 

Reassembling. 

This  practically  completes  the  taking  down  and  examina- 
tion of  the  engine,  with  all  its  various  added  appliances,  and 
it  may  be  advisable  before  proceeding  with  the  taking  down  of 
any  other  part  of  the  car  to  reassemble  the  engine.  Little 
need  be  said  as  to  this ;  the  sequence  of  operations  will  be  in- 
dicated by  the  sequence  of  the  operations  in  taking  the  en- 
gine apart,  those  parts  first  removed  being  those  which  will  be 
the  last  to  be  assembled  together  again. 

The  fitting  of  the  pistons  with  their  rings  inside  the  cylin- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  223 

ders  is  not  by  any  means  an  easy  job,  and  great  care  must  be 
exercised  in  this  operation  in  order  to  insure  that  the  rings  are 
fitted  in  with  their  joints  equidistant  from  each  other.  In 
putting  in  the  pistons  care  must  be  taken  not  to  turn  them 
round,  and  to  replace  each  piston  in  the  position  which  it  will 
occupy  as  indicated  by  the  marks  made  upon  it.  It  is  obvious 
that  if  the  piston  were  partially  rotated  after  one  or  more  of 
the  rings  were  placed  inside  the  cylinder,  it  would  be  likely  to 
rotate  upon  the  ring,  and  the  position  of  the  rings  would  be 
altered  relatively  to  each  other. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder  is  belled 
out  or  tapered,  so  that,  by  pushing  the  piston  up  into  the 
cylinder  the  taper  in  the  mouth  of  the  cylinder  will  gradually 
close  the  ring  in  its  groove  until  it  will  slip  up  inside  the 
cylinder. 

Packings — All  packings  for  the  joints,  such  as  between  the 
cylinder  and  the  crank  case,  the  inlet  pipes  from  the  carbure- 
ter, the  exhaust  pipes,  and  the  water  pipes  should  be  made 
good  either  by  using  the  old  packing,  or,  if  that  be  torn,  new 
packing.  An  old  paper  packing,  or  asbestos  packing  which  has 
been  torn  across  is  practically  useless,  as  it  will  never  be  really 
tight,  and  leakage  will  take  place.  Good,  stiff  wrapping  paper 
well  soaked  in  boiled  linseed  oil  makes  as  good  a  packing  as 
can  be  desired  for  those  joints  which  are  well  faced  up.  In 
some  cases,  where  the  faced  joints  have  been  scraped,  as 
distinct  from  having  been  only  planed  or  otherwise  machined, 
a  joint  may  be  made  without  any  packing  whatever  by  simply 
cleaning  the  two  surfaces  with  emery  cloth  and  smearing  them 
with  boiled  linseed  oil  before  putting  them  together.  It  is 
necessary  in  such  cases,  however,  to  be  quite  certain  that 
there  is  no  foreign  matter  between  the  twc  surfaces  before 
they  come  in  contact ;  even  a  minute  piece  <f  grit  will  pre- 
vent the  joint  from  making  proper  contact  and  will  cause 
leakage,  and  if  any  doubt  exists  as  to  such  a  scraped  joint 
being  quite  tight  the  remedy  of  the  wrapping  paper  oil-soaked 
packing  will  insure  that  everything  is  tight. 

Any  packing  that  is  provided  in  the  joint  between  the  flange 


224  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

of  the  cylinder  and  the  top  of  the  crank  case  will  necessarily 
lift  the  cylinder  relatively  to  the  crankshaft,  so  that  it  is  nec- 
essary that  if  any  new  packing  is  inserted  here  it  should  be 
of  the  same  thickness  as  the  packing  which  was  taken  away. 
If  it  is  thicker  it  will  slightly  alter  the  area  of  the  combustion 
space  and  slightly  reduce  the  compression.  If  it  is  thinner 
it  will  cause  the  piston  to  move  higher  up  in  the  cylinder  and 
slightly  increase  the  compression.  These  differences,  of 
course,  will  be  very  slight ;  nevertheless,  it  is  advisable  to  see 
that  the  packing  is  of  the  same  thickness  as  was  originally  in- 
serted, and  of  the  same  thickness  under  all  cylinders  in  the 
case  of  multiple-cylindered  engines. 

Reassembling  the  Valve  Gearing — In  reassembling  the  valve 
gearing  and  the  valves,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  any  wear 
which  takes  place  between  the  cam  and  the  plunger  or  between 
the  plunger  and  the  valve  stem  will  make  a  difference  in  the 
height  to  which  the  valve  will  be  raised  from  its  seat,  and 
therefore  in  the  area  of  opening  for  the  incoming  or  outflowing 
gases.  As  a  very  slight  difference  in  lift  makes  a  very  appre- 
ciable difference  in  area,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  the  wear  be- 
tween any  of  these  parts  is  excessive  a  throttling  action  on  the 
inlet  and  exhaust  gases  will  take  place.  Conversely  it  must 
be  remembered  that  every  time  the  valves  are  ground  in,  the 
valve  stem  is  practically  lengthened,  so  that  the  wear  taking 
place  at  one  end  and  the  grinding  down  of  the  valve  at  the 
other  may,  to  some  extent,  equalize  each  other. 

General  Hints — Some  other  general  remarks  may  be  made 
regarding  the  reassembling  of  parts  generally.  Surfaces  which 
come  into  contact  with  each  other  should  be  cleaned,  and  the 
work  should  b  performed  in  as  clean  surroundings  as  pos- 
sible so  as  to  pi  vent  grit  and  other  foreign  substances  getting 
in  between  working  surfaces.  It  is  generally  advisable  to 
smear  working  parts  with  oil  when  assembling  them,  and  it 
is  very  good  practice  to  put  a  drop  of  oil  on  a  screw  or  a 
bolt  before  tightening  it  up.  This  prevents  any  danger  of 
seizing,  and  allows  the  bolt  or  nut  to  be  tightened  up  quite 
firmly,  while,  contrary  to  what  might  be  expected  by  the  uni- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  225 

nitiated,  the  oil  has  no  tendency  to  help  the  nut  or  bolt  to 
shake  loose,  and  it  has  the  advantage  of  preventing  the  rust- 
ing up  of  bolts  which  often  occurs  in  such  places  as  on  ex- 
haust pipes  and  water  connections.  The  condensation  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  exhaust  pipes  is  very  noticeable,  and  often 
— in  fact,  generally — sets  up  rust  on  the  connections  and 
unions.  This  latter  may  be  to  a  very  great  extent  obviated 
if  plumbago  paste  is  brushed  on  to  the  parts  when  reassem- 
bling. This  will  act  as  a  lubricant  in  screwing  the  parts  to- 
gether, and  will  also  prevent  rust,  and  will  be  unaffected  by  the 
heat  of  the  exhaust. 

Overhauling  the  Change  Speed  Gear. 

As  regards  the  gear,  the  procedure  in  overhauling  this  will, 
as  in  other  cases,  vary  according  to  the  type  of  gear.  For  our 
present  purpose,  we  will  exclude  from  consideration  any  but 
the  most  representative  types.  Gears  using  expanding  clutches 
to  fix  the  gear  wheels  to  their  shafts,  or  epicyclic  gears,  or 
gears  using  sliding  feathers  and  keys,  will  have  to  be  treated 
according  to  their  own  particular  requirements,  and  the  effect 
of  wear  will  be  shown  in  these  in  different  ways  according  as 
the  different  actuating  parts  have  to  bear  the  strain  or  pres- 
sure. It  might  be  mentioned  that  where  expanding  clutches 
as  in  the  De  Dion  car,  are  used,  very  careful  adjustment  be- 
comes necessary,  and  an  overhauling,  if  the  gears  are  to  be 
taken  apart  for  examination,  is  not  so  easy  a  job  as  in  the 
case  of  the  more  representative  sliding  type  of  gears.  The 
same  applies  to  epicyclic  gears,  and  with  all  these  the  manu- 
facturers generally  supply  concise  directions  as  to  adjust- 
ment and  overhauling.  It  will  be  best  in  all  cases  to  apply 
to  them  for  the  necessary  information,  and  often  advisable  to 
get  the  overhauling  done  by  the  manufacturers  themselves. 

See  to  the  Operating  Gear — In  most  later  types  of  cars  the 
gear  shafts  run  on  large  ball  bearings,  and  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  halves  of  the  gear  box  is  higher  than  the  centers 
of  the  shafts.  In  such  cases  the  shafts,  instead  of  being  let 
down  in  their  bearings,  as  in  the  older  types,  are  pushed  into 
position  endways,  the  different  wheels  being  threaded  upon 


226  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

them  on  a  square,  or  on  a  castellated  section  of  the  shaft,  the 
ball  bearings  being  pushed  into  position  endways  after  the 
shaft  is  in  position  in  the  gear  box  and  with  its  wheels  upon 
it.  If  a  wheel  is  very  badly  damaged  the  only  remedy  is  re- 
placement by  a  new  one ;  doctoring  up  the  teeth  of  gear  wheels 
is  never  a  successful  operation,  and  at  best  is  only  a  very  tem- 
porary remedy.  Derangement  is  more  likely  to  occur  through 
wear  in  the  operating  levers  or  rods.  t 

It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  disconnect  the  controlling 
levers  and  mechanism  for  the  examination  of  the  gear  box, 
although  in  some  cases  the  constructional  arrangement  is  such 
as  to  necessitate  this.  If,  however,  it  is  found  advisable  to 
remove  these,  or  uncouple  them,  it  is  imperative  that  proper 
marks  be  made  so  as  to  determine  that  they  will  go  back  to- 
gether in  the  same  position  as  before.  A  very  slight  difference 
in  the  angularity  of  a  lever  on  a  rocking  shaft  will  make  all 
the  difference  in  the  amount  of  travel  of  a  rod  which  it  oper- 
ates. In  some  gears,  even  although  all  the  joints  were  tight 
and  well  fitting,  if  the  position  of  a  lever  on  a  shaft  were 
altered,  and  even  if  everything  seemed  to  be  working  easily 
and  without  shake,  it  might  be  found  that  the  operating  rod 
did  not  carry  the  gear  wheels  for  enough  into  mesh  with  each 
other.  It  is  therefore  necessary  in  replacing  the  gear  box  or 
any  part  of  the  gear  box  mechanism  to  insure,  before  fixing 
all  up,  that  on  each  change  of  the  change  speed  levers  the  gears 
which  ought  to  be  in  operation  are  fully  in  mesh  with  each 
other.  Also  that  there  is  no  chance,  owing  to  wrong  adjust- 
ment, of  any  other  gear  either  getting  into  mesh  while  one 
is  already  in  operation  or  getting  so  near  an  adjacent  wheel 
as  to  cause  damage  to  it. 

Oil  should  be  Examined — The  oil  which  is  taken  out  of 
the  gear  box  should  be  carefully  examined  to  see  that  there 
are  no  traces  of  grit  or  metallic  dust  present,  such  as  would 
indicate  the  grinding  away  of  the  wheels,  for  even  if  this 
goes  on  to  a  very  slight  extent,  the  metallic  particles  will 
eventually  get  into  and  cut  up  the  bearings.  If  anything  of 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  227 

this  nature  is  felt  in  the  oil  removed  from  the  gear  box,  very 
careful  examination  should  be  made  to  determine  where  it 
comes  from.  The  joint  between  the  bottom  and  the  top  halves 
of  the  gear  box,  where  it  is  divided,  should  be  carefully  cleaned, 
and  a  good  joint  made  with  wrapping  paper  and  linseed  oil ; 
otherwise  the  lubricant  will  leak  out,  and  dirt  and  grease  will 
accumulate,  which  will  not  only  be  unpleasant,  but  will  detract 
from  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  car. 

In  cases  where  the  car  is  chain  driven,  an  examination  of 
the  change  speed  gear  will  also  include  the  differential  gear, 
which  in  such  types,  is  usually  placed  inside  the  gear  box. 
This  will  mean  also  an  examination  of  the  driving  shafts  and 
their  bearings — that  is,  the  shafts  which  carry  at  their  ends 
the  chain  sprockets.  Any  play  in  these  bearings  should  be 
dealt  with  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  engine  bearings. 

Chains  and  Chain  Wheels. 

Chains  should  be  examined  carefully  as  to  stretch.  If  the 
chain  is  so  far  stretched  that  it  cannot  be  laid  completely 
round  the  large  sprocket  wheel,  with  every  roller  properly 
embedded  in  the  tooth  space,  it  may  be  regarded  as  having 
stretched  too  far,  and  should  be  replaced.  Wear  on  the  sprok- 
ets  will  be  more  noticeable  on  the  small  sprockets  on  the 
end  of  the  countershaft ;  the  teeth  instead  of  having  a  cycloidal 
form  will  be  undercut,  or  worn  hollow  by  the  rollers  of  the 
chain,  the  result  being  that  the  wheel  will  tend  to  hang  on  to 
the  chain  and  that  the  chain  will  not  clear  itself  from  the 
sprocket  easily  as  it  runs  off.  If  the  sprockets  have  worn  to 
such  an  extent  they  should  be  replaced. 

Live  Axle  and  Differential. 

Where  a  live  axle  drive  is  used,  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  universal  joints  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  transmitting 
or  cardan  shaft.  If  kept  clean  and  properly  lubricated  the 
wear  here  will  be  very  slow,  although,  in  some  methods  of 
construction,  there  are  possibilities  of  considerable  slackness 
and  wear  taking  place.  As  there  is  usually  no  adjustment  to 


228  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

these,  it  is  necessary,  if  the  play  has  become  too  great,  to 
replace  the  parts  which  are  worn.  As  regards  the  live  axle 
and  differential  type  of  car,  wear  in  the  bearings  will  make 
itself  apparent  in  a  considerable  amount  of  backlash  between 
the  bevel  crown  wheel  and  the  bevel  pinion.  Usually  provi- 
sion is  made  for  taking  this  up  endways,  so  as  to  bring  these 
two  wheels  into  closer  mesh  with  each  other,  but  owing  to  the 
fact  that  a  very  slight  alteration  in  the  relative  positions  of 
two  bevel  wheels  will  make  a  very  considerable  difference  in 
the  friction  which  they  will  develop  in  transmitting  the  power, 
it  will  be  found  advisable,  if  there  is  any  great  wear,  to  get 
the  adjustment  made  by  a  competent  engineer  who  will  know 
exactly  how  deep  it  is  safe  to  put  the  teeth  into  mesh  with  each 
other. 

The  road  wheels,  in  the  case  of  old  cars,  generally  run  on 
plain  parallel  bearings  of  some  anti-friction  metal,  such  as 
bronze  or  some  of  the  bronze  alloys.  If  wear  here  is  exces- 
sive, it  will  generally  be  noticed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
wheels  will  not  stand  vertically  on  the  ground,  but  will  tend 
to  incline  inward  toward  the  body  of  the  car. 

The  Brakes. 

The  brakes  will  require  attention.  If  the  car  has  been  well 
used,  brake  adjustments  will  have  been  made  from  time  to 
time  as  they  have  been  required ;  but  it  is  well  to  take  down 
all  the  brakes,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  so  much 
worn  as  to  require  repairs  or  renewals. 

To  get  at  the  internal  expanding  brakes,  the  wheels  will 
have  to  be  removed. 

The  brake  shoes  are  fitted  on  a  circular  plate  attached  to  the 
outside  of  the  axle,  and  the  drum  against  which  they  expand 
is  carried  on  the  wheel,  generally  being  bolted  through  the 
spokes,  or  else  forming  part  of  the  solid  steel  of  the  hub.  By 
withdrawing  the  wheel  from  its  axle  endways,  the  whole  of  the 
braking  mechanism  will  be  exposed. 

The  action  of  the  toggle,  or  the  cam,  or  whatever  other 
movement  actuates  the  shoes  and  causes  them  to  expand, 
should  be  carefully  examined, 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  229 

In  the  case  of  brakes  operated  by  cables  (such  as  will  be 
found  in  some  of  the  older  types  of  cars,  in  which  the  cable 
runs  over  the  curved  ends  of  two  levers  on  a  rocking  shaft, 
and  passes  through  the  center  of  this  shaft,  being  anchored 
at  either  end  on  the  two  brakes  on  the  road  wheels)  this  cable 
will  have  to  be  taken  out  and  carefully  examined.  If  any 
strand  of  it  has  become  torn  or  broken,  the  result  will  be  a 
very  rapid  stretch  of  the  cable,  the  strain  which  was  formerly 
taken  by  all  the  strands  having  to  be  taken  by  a  smaller  num- 
ber, and  the  cable  will,  of  course,  have  become  very  much 
weakened,  with  the  result  that  it  might  at  a  critical  moment 
give  way.  Sometimes  it  will  be  found  that  where  the  cable 
has  to  take  a  violent,  sharp  turn  into  the  rocking  shaft  it  will 
become  frayed,  and  in  any  case  where  any  of  the  strands  of 
the  cable  are  damaged,  the  cable  should  be  entirely  replaced 
by  a  new  one. 

In  all  cases  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  that  the  compensa- 
tion device  is  working  properly,  and  it  should  be  taken  apart 
and  cleaned. 

As  regards  countershaft  brakes,  it  will  be  necessary  to  ex- 
amine to  see  whether  the  wear  on  the  shoes  has  been  of  such 
an  extent  as  to  bring  the  ends  of  the  two  shoes  so  near  to  each 
other  as  to  prevent  a  full  braking  pressure  being  put  on. 

The  Steering  Gear. 

The  steering  gear  should  be  taken  down  completely.  In 
most  modern  practice  this  can  be  very  easily  accomplished 
by  undoing  four  or  more  bolts  which  hold  the  steering  box 
to  the  side  frame  of  the  car.  The  steering  wheel  having  been 
taken  off,  and  the  supporting  bracket  on  the  dashboard  having 
been  unshipped,  the  steering  box  with  its  column  complete 
can  be  dropped  down  into  the  pit  through  the  bottom  of  the 
car. 

Of  course,  in  cases  where  the  carburation,  throttle  or  igni- 
tion levers  are  operated  by  rods  which  pass  through  the  center 
of  the  steering  column,  the  connections  to  these  different  parts 
will  have  to  be  undone  at  the  bottom.  After  thoroughly  clean- 


230  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

ing  the  worm  gear  with  kerosene,  it  should  be  tested  as  to  the 
amount  of  wear;  if  any  provision  is  made  for  adjustment  here 
so  as  to  prevent  backlash,  the  adjustment  should  be  made. 

The  box  will  have  to  be  replaced  carefully,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  all  the  nuts  are  properly  locked 
and  pinned.  The  joints  in  the  rods  and  arms  of  the  steering 
gear  will  have  to  be  carefully  examined.  In  the  case  of  ball 
and  socket  joints,  after  thoroughly  cleaning  them,  they  should 
be  inspected  to  see  that  no  wear  has  occurred  to  an  extent 
such  as  to  cause  any  likelihood  of  the  ball  coming  out  of  the 
socket — a  failure  which  might  prove  disastrous.  The  springs, 
where  springs  are  used  in  the  sleeves  holding  the  sockets 
which  encircle  the  bolts  of  the  ball  and  socket  joints,  should 
be  taken  out  and  tested  as  to  their  strength.  If  any  weakness 
is  apparent,  they  should  be  replaced.  It  should  also  be  noted 
that  the  spring  is  not  of  such  a  length  as  would  allow,  under 
great  pressure,  the  bolt  to  force  one-half  of  the  socket  back 
against  the  spring  far  enough  to  release  itself,  and  in  reassem- 
bling these  joints  the  very  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  adjustable  end  of  the  socket  is  firmly  tightened  up 
and  properly  locked.  The  leather  grease-holding  covers, 
which  are  usually  applied  round  the  joints,  should  be  cleaned 
and  put  back,  and  if  they  are  worn  or  have  become  weak,  they 
should  be  replaced  by  new  ones.  The  lacing  of  these  should 
be  carefully  done,  and  they  should  be  secured  very  tightly 
round  each  arm  or  link,  as  they  provide  a  certain  amount  of 
security  against  the  unshipping  of  the  joints.  Spring  band 
clips  used  for  water  tubing  can  be  recommended  for  securing 
the  leather,  and  should  be  so  fixed  that  in  case  of  a  breakage 
they  would  temporarily  hold  the  parts  together  so  as  to  render 
steering  possible  for  a  short  period,  so  that  the  car  could  be 
run  slowly  to  a  garage  or  workshop.  The  steering  heads,  on 
which  the  road  wheels  are  pivoted,  should  also  be  taken  apart 
and  examined.  If  they  are  of  the  plain  variety  with  a  hard- 
ened steel  pin  right  through,  this  should  be  examined,  and,  if 
considerable  wear  has  taken  place,  it  should  be  replaced. 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  231 

Springs. 

The  springs  will  require  attention.  The  bolts  in  the 
shackles  at  the  end  of  the  springs  will  have  to  be  taken  out 
and  examined  for  wear.  If  much  worn,  they  will  have  to  be 
replaced  with  new  ones.  In  cases  where  the  bolts  are  worn  on 
one  side  only,  they  can  with  convenience  be  replaced  so  that 
the  worn  side  comes  away  from  those  surfaces  of  the  joint 
which  are  pressing  together.  The  springs  themselves  should 
be  examined  to  see  that  all  the  leaves  are  snugly  down  on  each 
other,  and  that  no  weakness  has  taken  place,  weakness  being 
evident  if  the  springs  assume  a  nearly  horizontal  position 
when  the  car  is  loaded. 

Tires. 

As  regards  tires,  these  should  be  carefully  examined  and 
treated  as  described  at  length  in  another  chapter.  Casings 
should  be  removed  from  the  rims,  and  any  repairs  to 
cuts  or  gashes  properly  executed  by  vulcanizing.  The  beaded 
edges  of  the  casing  should  be  carefully  cleaned  free  from  any 
rust  which  may  have  been  set  up,  and  brushed  with  blacklead. 
The  wheel  rims  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  scraped,  and 
all  rust  should  be  removed  with  coarse  emery  cloth,  and  the 
rims  blackleaded.  While  the  tires  are  off  it  is  a  good  time  to 
test  the  alignment  of  the  wheels,  to  insure  that  the  car  is  run- 
ning in  track.  When  the  front  wheels  are  placed  in  the 
straightforward  position,  a  long  straight-edge  placed  along 
against  the  front  and  back  wheels,  at  as  near  their  fullest  di- 
ameter as  the  projection  of  the  hub  cap  will  allow,  should 
touch  the  rims  in  all  four  places;  the  wheels  being  out  of 
track  may  be  caused  by  the  wrong  adjustment  of  the  radius 
rods  throwing  the  back  axle  out  of  square  with  the  chassis 
frame.  This  can  usually  be  ascertained  by  a  line  or  cord  held 
at  the  front  of  the  chassis  frame,  and  just  touching  the  back 
axle  on  one  side.  This  cord  should  then  exactly  reach  from 
the  same  point  at  the  front  of  the  chassis  frame  to  the  rear 
axle  on  the  other  side.  The  adjustment,  should  it  be  out  of 
alignment,  can  be  made  by  means  of  the  radius  rods.  The 


232  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

same  method  can  be  applied  to  the  front  axle,  and  if  it  is  out 
of  square  the  remedy  is  to  slack  off  the  bolts  holding  the 
spring  on  the  spring  plate,  and  so  adjust  the  axle  across  the 
car  frame. 

OVERHAULING  HINTS  AND  TIPS. 
How  to  Save  Trouble. 

A  large  number  of  amateur  motorists  are  very  innocent  of 
^he  internal  economy  of  the  automobiles  or  other  mechanical- 
ly-propelled vehicles  which  they  more  or  less  successfully 
drive  or  attempt  to  overhaul.  To  the  enthusiastic  amateur 
who  does  not  profess  to  be  a  skilled  engineer  (and  yet  likes 
to  do  his  own  repairing),  and  to  the  workman  who  does,  it 
is  hoped  that  the  hints  given  below  will  be — as  they  should 
if  intelligently  and  carefully  followed  out — of  some  consider- 
able service. 

During  the  winter  months  of  the  year  a  large  number  of 
cars  are  laid  up  or  are  not  used  to  the  same  extent  as  will  be 
the  case  later  on,  and  the  opportunity  can  thus  be  taken  by 
the  owner  to  have  a  thorough  overhaul  of  the  various  parts 
which  may  require  attention,  so  that  the  best  running  and  en- 
joyment free  from  all  but  minor  troubles  may  be  obtained  dur- 
ing the  best  of  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  months.  The 
wise  man  sees  to  it  that  all  little  details  are  gone  into  thor- 
oughly, and  he  then  derives  the  maximum  of  pleasure  with 
the  minimum  of  trouble. 

The  Putting-on  Tool. 

A  manufacturer  describes  a  very  smart  jig  in  use  at  his 
works,  which  has  earned  the  nickname  of  "the  putting-on 
tool,"  and  is  chiefly  used  in  the  repair  shop.  For  instance,  a 
car  that  has  been  in  use  a  long  time  comes  in  for  repair. 
Among  other  signs  of  wear  and  tear,  it  is  noticed  that,  say,  a 
small  pinion  or  cam  rocks  on  its  shaft,  that  is,  a  loose  fit.  This 
at  first  sight  appears  a  big  job,  but  is  easily  done  with  the 
"putting-on  tool,"  or  in  other  words,  by  shrinking  the  hole 
smaller.  The  modus  operandi  is  as  follows:  Take  a  rod  of 
steel  or  iron  that  is  a  loose  fit  in  the  hole,  and,  using  this  as  a 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  233 

mandrel,  heat  the  cam  on  it.  When  the  cam  is  sufficiently 
hot,  spray  cold  water  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  cam,  with 
the  result  that  the  hole  will  be  reduced  between  o.i  and  0.2 
mm.  This  process  may  be  repeated  indefinitely,  and  may  be 
applied  to  all  sorts  of  parts,  such  as  a  nut  that  is  loose  on  its 
thread,  which  is  a  very  bad  feature,  even  if  a  split  pin  is  used. 
Any  loose  nut  may  be  made  tight  by  merely  applying  the 
"putting-on  tool,"  and  if  satisfaction  is  not  obtained  from  the 
first  application,  take  another  dose  of  the  same  physic,  and 
there  will  be  a  further  shrinkage  of  o.i  mm. 

Removing  the  Engine  from  the  Frame. 

To  do  this,  first  disconnect  all  wires,  ignition  rods,  inlet, 
exhaust,  and  water  connections,  also  the  pump  when  it  is  re- 
movable and  attached  to  the  engine  case,  or  any  other  bracket 
which  prevents  the  ready  removal  of  the  engine.  Always 
mark  all  the  parts  with  a  center-punch,  letter,  or  number 
stamps  to  facilitate  reassembling;  note  the  length  of  any  ad- 
justable rods,  so  that  there  will  be  no  alteration  in  these  when 
again  put  in  place.  Mark  with  a  sharp  tool  the  exact  position 
of  the  engine  brackets  on  their  bedding,  in  case  the  securing 
bolts  are  slack. 

Having  got  the  engine  out,  after  removing  the  securing 
bolts,  carefully  clean  all  grease  and  dirt  from  all  the  outer 
parts  of  it  which  are  accessible.  Get  a  box  to  put  in  all  the 
parts  which  are  to  be  taken  down,  so  that  they  may  all  be  kept 
together  and  to  save  hunting  for  them  later  on.  Securely  fix 
up  the  engine  on  a  bench  or  strong  box,  so  that  it  can  be 
operated  on  readily.  Take  out  the  sparking  plugs  to  prevent 
breakage,  and  plug  up  the  holes  in  which  they  screw  either 
with  corks  or  with  a  wad  of  clean  cotton  waste.  Remove 
the  valve  covers  or  caps,  then  take  out  the  valves  by  releasing 
the  valve  spring,  taking  out  the  valve  cotter,  and,  either  by 
jerking  up  the  valve  with  one  hand  and  catching  it  with  the 
other  or  by  a  pair  of  pliers,  take  hold  of  a  small  piece  usually 
turned  on  the  valve  head  for  grinding-in  purposes,  and  pull 
out  the  valve. 

Owing  to  the  strength  of  the  valve  spring,   and  often  to 


234 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


the  inaccessibility  of  it,  difficulty  is  experienced  in  compress- 
ing the  spring  so  as  to  allow  of  the  removal  of  the  small  cotter 
which  engages  in  the  valve  stem  below  the  spring  cup.  The 
simple  tool  illustrated  renders  this  operation  quite  easy.  An 


A  simple  device  for  removing  valves. 

A,  valve  spring  cup. 

B,  valve  cotter. 

C,  valve  spring. 

D,  hand  lever  of  iin.  diameter  steel  wire  flattened  at  end  under  cup  A. 

E,  bent  wire. 

F,  valve. 

G,  cylinder. 

ordinary  piece  of  steel  wire  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
can  be  bent  as  shown,  the  length  being  arranged  to  suit  the 
depth  of  the  valve.  A  disk  of  metal  can  be  riveted -to  the  wire 
where  it  presses  on  the  valve  head,  or  the  wire  itself  can  be 
bent  round  to  form  a  circular  head.  When  the  lever  D  is  de- 
pressed by  the  hand  the  spring  cup  A  is  raised,  and  the  cotter 
B  can  be  withdrawn,  as  the  pressure  on  the  top  of  the  valve 
by  the  cramp  E  holds  the  valve  securely  on  its  seating. 

Grinding  in  a  Valve. 

Examine  the  valve,  and  if  found  pitted  or  only  bearing  on 
part  of  the  seating  so  that  there  has  been  a  blow  past,  then  the 
valve  must  be  ground  in.  To  do  this,  use  a  mixture  of  fine 
emery  powder  and  lubricating  oil,  apply  a  little  with  the  finger 
to  the  valve  face,  then  put  the  valve  in  its  place,  and  by  means 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  235 

of  a  screwdriver  or  a  special  screwed  grinding-in  tool  partially 
rotate  the  valve  backward  and  forward  on  its  seating,  mean- 
while applying  moderate  pressure  to  it.  Occasionally  lift  the 
valve  and  move  it  round  to  another  position,  and  repeat  the 
grinding  until,  on  wiping  away  the  emery  and  oil  with  a  clean 
cloth  or  waste,  a  bright  surface  is  seen  all  round  the  valve  and 
the  seating  on  which  it  beds  when  in  position.  If  not  worked 
down  properly,  repeat  the  operation  until  it  is,  applying  more 
emery  and  oil;  if  the  seating  tends  to  dry 'up  during  grinding, 
just  touch  it  with  a  little  oil  only  if  there  is  plenty  of  the 
emery  powder  on.  Be  careful  not  to  press  down  too  hard  in» 
grinding-in,  or  to  get  any  grit  or  filings  mixed  up  in  the  grind- 
ing mixture,  as,  if  so,  rings  or  ridges  will  be  formed  which 
probably  can  only  be  removed  by  turning  up  in  a  lathe. 

After  grinding-in  and  thoroughly  cleaning  the  seatings, 
make  sure,  when  the  valve  is  placed  back  in  position,  that  it 
comes  right  down  on  to  its  seating,  and  yet  leaves  a  small 
space  (usually  about  1/32  inch)  between  the  valve  spindle  and 
its  tappet  rod  when  the  cam  is  in  such  a  position  that  the  valve 
should  not  be  lifted.  If  the  grinding  of  the  valve  has  dropped 
it  so  that  its  stem  will  not  clear  the  tappet  rod,  it  must  be  made 
to  do  so  by  filing  a  small  amount  from  the  top  of  the  tappet 
rod.  Do  not  file  the  valve  stem,  otherwise  standard  valves 
would  be  too  long  in  the  stem  if  a  replacement  were  required 
at  any  time.  If  the  valve  is  very  badly  pitted,  or  the  head  does 
not  appear  true  with  the  stem,  or  if  the  neck  under  the  head 
has  burned  to  a  much  smaller  section,  which  happens  after  a 
time  with  the  exhaust  valve,  then  the  valve  should  be  replaced 
by  a  new  one,  which  should  be  ground  in  place  to  make  a  com- 
pression-tight seating.  Replacing  a  valve  in  time  will  prevent 
trouble  from  breakage  later  on.  There  is  always  the  danger, 
if  the  head  should  break  off,  that  it  may  get  in  the  cylinder 
and  cause  damage  to  the  piston  or  other  part.  Remember, 
"a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine." 

Valve  Spring  Testing. 

The  inlet  ™-  exhaust  valve  springs  may  either  have  lost 
some  of  their  elasticity  and  power,  owing  to  the  heat  to  which 


236  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

they  have  been  subjected,  or  in  the  case  of  automatic  inlet 
valve  springs,  the  constant  rapid  vibration  may  have  perma- 
nently shortened  them,  thus  preventing  the  rapid  working  of 
the  valve  on  its  seating.  These  should  be  renewed  before  going 
farther.  It  is  always  best  to  keep  a  new  inlet  and  exhaust 
valve  spring  as  a  standard  with  which  to  compare  the  used 
springs,  so  that  any  deterioration  can  be  detected  at  once. 


Testing  an  inlet  valve  spring  against  the  standard.    Note  that  both  valves  open 
at  exactly  the  same  moment. 

With  automatic  inlet  valve  springs  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
them  always  at  the  strength  to  give  the  best  results,  and  so 
every  spring  fitted  should  be  tested  against  the  standard. 
This  can  be  done  by  having  a  spare  valve  and  seating  fitted 
up  with  the  standard  spring  complete,  then  press  the  stem 
of  its  valve  against  the  stem  of  that  to  be  tested,  when  it  is 
likewise  similarly  fitted  up.  If  correct,  both  valves  should 
open  exactly  at  the  same  moment,  as  the  pressure  tending  to 
lift  them  from  their  seat  will  be  equal.  If  the  refitted  spring 
is  too  strong,  then  shorten  by  nipping  off  a  little  with  the 
pliers;  if  too  weak,  pull  out  carefully  a  little  to  strengthen  it. 

Marking  of  Camshaft  Gears  and  Setting  of  Valves. 
Valve  setting  appears  to  be  a  difficult  subject  with  a  large 
number  of  automobilists,  but  it  is  really  the  easiest  of  opera- 
tions if  the  Otto  cycle  is  understood.  If  the  following  in- 
structions are  carried  out  the  veriest  tyro  will  successfully 
manage  this  interesting  job.  In  the  first  place  the  flywheel 
should  be  rotated  until  the  piston  is  brought  to  the  top  of  its 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  237 

stroke.  In  two  or  more  cylinder  engines  the  forward  piston 
is  meant.  This  can  be  ascertained  either  by  inserting  a  long 
piece  of  stiff  wire  through  the  compression  tap  hole,  the 
sparking  plug  hole — when  it  is  in  the  top  of  the  cylinder— 
or  by  noting  the  position  of  the  crank  through  the  inspection 
lid  of  the  crank  chamber. 

Now  notice  whether  both  inlet  and  exhaust  valves  are  down 
on  their  seatings.  If  so,  oscillate  the  flywheel  backward  and 
forward  through  a  small  arc,  and  if  in  one  direction  the  inlet 
valve  is  lifted  from  its  seating,  and  in  the  other  the  exhaust 
valve  is  lifted,  you  are  then  ready  for  the  next  proceeding. 

The  cams  would  occupy  the  position  shown  in  the  sectional 
sketch,  the  induction  stroke  being  just  about  to  commence. 
If  the  valves  do  not  lift  as  stated,  then  the  flywheel  must  be 
turned  througPT  one  revolution. 

The  inlet  valve  will  open  immediately  the  exhaust  valve 
closes,  and  close  about  the  end  of  the  suction  stroke.  The 
exhaust  valve  will  open  a  little  before  the  end  of  the  working 
stroke.  This  time  of  opening  varies  from  %.  inch  to  1^4  incn 
from  the  end,  according  to  the  make  of  engine,  length  of 
stroke,  and  speed  at  which  it  is  desired  to  run. 

Now,  if  the  camshaft  wheels  are  not  cased  in — as  in  some 
types  they  are  not — you  can  proceed  to  mark  the  wheels  as 
shown  in  the  sketch,  using  either  a  sharp  scriber,  or  center- 
punch  the  corresponding  tooth  and  metal  below  the  space  in 
which  the  tooth  gears.  If  the  wheels  are  cased  in,  then  lay 
the  whole  engine  flat  on  the  flywheel,  using  two  blocks  of 
wood  below  the  wheel  if  necessary,  as  it  may  be  if  there  is  any 
projecting  clutchshaft.  Take  out  the  screws,  or  remove  the 
securing  nuts  which  hold  the  gear  cover  plate  in  position, 
and  carefully  lift  off  the  plate,  so  that  the  wheels  are  left  in 
position  and  in  mesh  without  disturbance.  Again  make  sure 
that  the  piston  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke,  and  mark  the  wheels. 
In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  contact  maker 
bodily  before  the  cover  plate  can  be  taken  off.  If  the  center 
piece  is  keyed  in  position,  it  must  be  gently  forced  off  with  a 
steel  wedge  or  bent  lever. 


238 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


Before  removing  the  camshaft,  the  valve  tappets  should  be 
so  secured  that  they  cannot  drop  down  and  so  foul  the  cams 


Sketch  showing  how  to  set  the  valves.    Note  the  two  marked  point* 
on  the  wheels  M.  N,  and  O. 

A,  piston.  L,  exhaust  valve  cap. 

B,  connecting  rod.  M,  gear  wheel  on  C. 

C,  crankshaft.  N,  inlet  valve  camshaft  gear  wheel. 

D,  cylinder.  O,  exhaust  valve  camshaft  gear  wheel. 
E  E  E,  water  jacket.  P,  inlet  valve  cam. 

F,  inlet  port.  Q,  exhaust  valve  cam. 

G,  exhaust  port.  R  S,  valve  tappet  rods. 
H,  inlet  valve.                                                     T  U,  valve  springs. 

J,  exhaust  valve.  V,  flywheel. 

K,  inlet  valve  cap  tapped  for  sparking  plug. 

and  prevent  withdrawal  of  the  shaft.  A  thin  bit  of  twine 
tightly  tied  round  the  tappet  stem  when  it  is  lifted  up  as  far  as 
it  will  come  suffices. 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  239 

Taking  off  the  Cylinders. 

The  next  operation  is  to  take  off  the  cylinders.  Slack  off 
the  nuts  which  secure  the  first  cylinder  flange  to  the  crank 
case,  then  gently  lift  the  cylinder  until  the  piston  can  be  seen. 
Rotate  the  flywheel  until  the  piston  comes  to  its  lowest  point, 
so  that  there  is  not  far  to  pull  up  the  cylinder.  Allow  the 
connecting  rod  to  rest  on  one  side  of  the  crank  case,  so  that 
when  the  cylinder  is  pulled  entirely  away  from  the  piston  the 
latter  will  not  fall  against  the  iod  and  have  a  piece  knocked 
out  of  it.  Repeat  the  above  for  the  remaining  cylinders ;  note 
whether  there  has  been  any  blow  past  the  rings.  If  so,  these 
should  be  renewed  if  plain  slit  across,  but  if  tongued  they  may 
be  used  again  when  ground  with  pumice  powder  and  oil 
in  place  in  the  cylinder,  if  there  is  sufficient  spring  in  the 
rings  to  force  them  outward  to  a  larger  diameter  than  the 
piston. 

To  detect  a  leakage  or  blow  past  the  rings,  it  will  be  found 
that,  instead  of  the  rings  being  perfectly  bright  and  smooth 
all  around,  they  will  show  black  at  some  part  of  the  circum- 
ference, both  on  the  rings  and  the  piston,  where  the  blow  past 
has  taken  place. 

Next  soak  the  cylinders  well  in  turn  in  a  bucket  containing 
clean  kerosene.  This  will  remove  all  the  dirty  oil,  and  also 
loosen  any  deposit  of  charred  lubricating  oil,  so  that  it  can 
easily  be  removed  from*  the  combustion  chamber  by  means  of 
a  scraper  or  a  file  end. 

The  next  thing  is  to  try  whether  the  piston  pin  is  loose 
in  its  piston  bearing  hole,  as  may  sometimes  be  the  case.  An 
objectionable  knocking  is  caused  by  a  loose  piston,  this  some- 
what resembling  that  caused  by  having  the  ignition  advanced 
too  far.  Hold  the  piston  in  one  hand,  and  the  connecting  rod 
in  the  other,  and  try  to  rock  or  twist  the  piston  backward  or 
forward  at  right  angles  to  the  pin.  If  the  pin  moves  in  the 
piston,  a  tighter  one  should  replace  it.  This  will  have  to  be 
turned  up  in  a  lathe,  preferably  from  a  bar  of  good  cast  steel, 
and  then  fitted  up  tightly  in  the  piston,  care  being  taken  that 
the  ends  of  the  pin  are  slightly  below  the  'diameter  of  the  pis- 


240  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

ton,  otherwise  scoring  of  the  cylinder  may  take  place  on  re- 
suming work. 

Taking  down  Piston  and  Rings. 

This  is  the  point  where  trouble  will  be  found  if  care  is  not 
taken.  First  remove  the  securing  screw  or  ring  which  holds 
the  piston  pin  in  position,  then  gently  tap  out  the  pin  with  a 
piece  of  soft  copper  or  hard  wood.  An  extra  hand  is  required 
to  hold  the  piston  while  this  is  being  done.  Now,  having 
the  piston  free,  the  next  thing  is  to  remove  the  rings.  This 
may  be  a  troublesome  job,  but  if  rightly  tackled  is  very  easy. 
Figs.  I  and  2  show  the  first  and  second  operations  of  remov- 
ing the  last  ring,  which  is  the  most  difficult  when  it  has  to  be 
slipped  over  the  grooves  from  which  the  other  rings  have  been 
removed.  The  tools  required  are  three  strips  of  thin  tin,  l/^ 
or  y%  inch  wide,  and  of  a  length  proportionately  as  shown ;  a 
pair  of  tongs  made  of  J4  mc^  diameter  steel  wire,  tied  up  with 
copper  wire  to  form  a  hinge,  so  that  the  end  away  from  the 
hand  opens  instead  of  shuts  when  the  tongs  are  gripped  (just 
the  opposite  to  ordinary  pliers)  ;  and  a  pair  of  hands.  Com- 
mence by  opening  out  the  rings  slightly  as  shown  in  Fig.  I, 
insert  a  piece  of  tin  between  the  ring  and  the  piston,  loose  the 
tongs,  and  then  take  hold  of  the  tin  above  and  below  the  ring, 
and  slide  the  tin  round  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  slit.  Next 
insert  another  piece  of  tin  in  the  same  manner,  and  also  a  third, 
leaving  them  in  the  positions  as  shown  by  Fig.  i.  Now  take 
hold  of  the  ring  as  shown  by  Fig.  2,  pressing  with  the  thumbs 
on  the  top  of  the  piston,  and  the  ring  will  slide  easily  off. 
With  this  method  the  fingers  are  not  cut  or  pinched,  the  ring 
is  not  broken  or  distorted  from  its  circular  shape,  and  the  time 
occupied  is  not  a  tithe  of  that  required  without  this  simple 
device. 

Wearing  and  Renewal  of  Piston  Pins  and  Bushes. 
Having  cleaned  the  piston  pin  free  from  oil,   examine  it, 
and  notice  whether  there  is  excessive  wear  on  the  part  which 
fits  in  the  bush  of  the  connecting  rod  end.    This  will  be  indi- 
cated by  a  ridge  at  each  portion  of  the  pin  next  to  the  inside 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 


241 


First  operation  in  taking  off  a  piston  ring.    Opening  it  out  with  special  tongs  to 
insert  the  tin  guiding  strips. 


Second  operation  of  taking  off  a  piston  ring.    Slipping  it  off  over  the  tin  strip*. 


242  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

bosses  of  the  piston.  The  pin  will  be  worn  more  on  one  side 
than  the  other,  namely,  the  lower  side,  on  which  the  full  force 
of  the  explosion  pressure  on  the  piston  top  is  felt.  If  not 
more  than  1/64  inch  of  wear  has  taken  place  at  this  part  of 
the  pin  and  it  is  also  a  fit,  as  before  described,  in  the  piston, 
then  the  pin  may  or  may  not  be  renewed.  The  bush  in  which 
the  pin  works  may,  however,  be  worn  and  require  renewal. 
Try  the  pin  in  the  bush  in  its  working  position,  and  feel 
whether  it  has  more  than  1/64  inch  play  in  it.  If  so,  a  new 
bush  should  be  obtained  from  the  makers  of  the  car  or  their 
agents,  and  this  will  require  pressing  home  in  the  connecting 
rod  end  to  take  up  exactly  the  same  position  as  the  old  one. 

To  remove  the  play  in  the  case  of  split  brasses,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  remove  the  securing  bolts,  and  then  file  a  little 
off  the  flat  face  of  the  cap  and  the  brass.  Do  this  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  make  trials  with  the  cap  tightened  up  in  position,  to 
find  when  sufficient  metal  has  been  removed  from  the  cap  face 
and  brass.  When  no  play  is  noticeable,  and  the  rod  is  still 
free  on  the  crank  pin,  the  job  may  be  considered  satisfactory. 
There  should  be  no  necessity  to  scrape  the  brasses,  unless  they 
are  badly  scored  through  want  of  oil  or  through  access  of 
grit. 

In  the  case  of  solid  bushes,  such  as  are  used  on  built-up 
cranks,  then  excessive  wear  means  either  a  new  bush  or,  if 
possible,  lining  up  the  old  one  with  a  good  anti-friction  white 
metal.  This  is  a  job  that  requires  some  skill  and  experience, 
and  should  be  undertaken  by  the  makers  of  the  engine,  who 
would  do  all  the  work  required  if  the  exact  worn  size  of  the 
crank  pin  were  supplied  to  them. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  main  bearings  of  the  engine 
as  for  the  crank  pin  bearings ;  they  can  be  tried  in  the  same 
manner  by  holding  the  crank  case  and  feeling  the  crank  for 
play. 

Scraping  up  and  Adjusting  Engine  Bearings. 

Some  amateurs  may  wish  to  scrape  up  the  brasses  of  the 
connecting  rod  end  of  the  main  crank  bearings,  and  although 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  243 

they  may  not  make  as  good  a  job  of  them  as  a  professional 
man,  a  few  words  on  the  subject  may  be  useful.  The  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  make  a  scraper  suitable  for  the  job.  This 
can  be  made  out  of  an  old,  worn  smooth,  half-round  file  about 
6  to  8  inches  long.  The  file  will  require  softening,  and  the 
cross  cut  marks  ground  entirely  out  of  it  on  the  flat  face,  and 
on  the  back  edge ;  after  this  it  should  be  heated  to  a  dull  red 
heat  and  bent  slightly  back,  the  rounded  part  of  the  file  being 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  bend.  After  this  the  file  requires  har- 
dening, preferably  in  oil,  and  then  grinding  up  to  make  two 
cutting  edges.  These  will  not  be  smooth  enough  to  scrape 
brasses,  and  will  require  further  smoothing  on  an  ordinary 
carpenter's  stone,  which  will  remove  the  roughness  and  put 
on  a  fine  cutting  edge.  The  object  of  bending  the  file  is  so  that 
the  hand,  in  grasping  the  file  handle,  may  be  able  to  operate 
at  an  angle  with  the  brass,  and  also  that  any  particular  hard 
point  in  the  brass  can  be  reached  without  taking  metal  away 
from  the  easier  contact  portion,  the  circular  shape  of  a  cutting 
edge  rendering  this  easy  to  do.  Having  made  the  brasses 
fairly  tight  on  the  bearings  by  filing  a  little  away  from  the 
caps,  all  that  remains  is  to  bed  the  brasses  properly  on  their 
bearings. 

To  do  this,  a  very  small  amount  of  red  ocher  mixed  with  lu- 
bricating oil  should  be  lightly  smoothed  over  the  crank  pin 
bearing,  only  the  slightest  trace  being  left  on  after  the  ocher 
has  been  spread  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  crank  bearings 
uniformly ;  then  put  on  the  connecting  rod,  slightly  tightening 
up  the  nuts  and  working  the  connecting  rod  round.  On  re- 
moving the  cap  it  will  be  found  that  some  parts  of  the  brasses 
will  be  harder  than  others.  Probably  the  bearing  will  be 
shown  by  dark  lines  extending  in  a  ring  round  the  brasses. 
These  dark  lines  require  easing  by  means  of  the  before-men- 
tioned scraper.  To  do  this,  take  hold  of  the  flat  edges  of  the 
brasses  in  a  vise  so  that  any  squeezing  up  of  the  vise  will 
not  tend  to  buckle  or  close  the  halves,  as  holding  in  the 
opposite  direction  would.  Now  carefully,  with  the  scraper 
handle  in  the  right  hand,  and  with  suitable  pressure  on  the 


244  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

scraper  close  to  the  handle  with  the  left  hand,  try  and  scrape 
the  hard  surface  from  the  brass. 

How  to  Work  up  a  Bearing. 

It  will  possibly  be  found  that  a  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
taking  the  metal  off  evenly,  the  scraper  showing  a  decided 
tendency  to  dig  in  and  create  holes  where  not  wished  for. 
This  can  be  avoided  by  scraping  slightly  with  one  cut,  and 
practically  at  nearly  a  right  angle  with  another  cut,  thus  the 
scraper  bridges  over  the  notches  or  holes  made  by  the  first  cut. 
Of  course,  experience  is  necessary  to  do  this  work  nicely,  and 
one  cannot  expect  to  compete  in  the  matter  with  a  man  who 
has  had  years  of  experience  in  it.  Continued  trial  will  enable 
one,  however,  to  approach  somewhere  near  a  good  surface. 
Care  must  be  exercised  that  the  brasses  are  not  left  hard  on 
the  sides  close  to  the  split,  otherwise  there  will  be  a  tendency 
to  bind  when  the  bearing  gets  warm.  They  should  always  be 
left  slightly  easier  at  the  side  than  at  the  top  and  bottom, 
where  the  greatest  thrust  is  obtained. 

When  it  is  finally  considered  that  the  bearing  is  good 
enough,  as  indicated  by  a  contact  well  over  the  brasses,  the 
connecting  rod  bolts  should  be  tightened  up  hard,  and  the 
connecting  rod  should  then  be  freely  movable  about  the  crank 
pin  without  any  play  being  felt.  At  the  same  time,  a  straight- 
edge should  be  tried  up  the  side  of  the  crank  cheeks,  and  this 
should  be  found  to  be  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  piston  pin 
hole.  A  set  square  placed  clean  through  the  piston  pin  hole 
along  the  bottom,  and  the  foot  of  the  square  slid  out  to  meet 
the  straight-edge  will  at  once  show  whether  this  is  so,  as,  if 
correct,  the  foot  of  the  straight-edge  should  be  exactly  par- 
allel to  the  edge  of  the  straight  edge. 

The  same  mode  of  procedure  as  regards  scraping  the  brasses 
and  trial  for  easy  working  fit  without  end  play  should  be 
adopted  with  the  main  crank  bearings.  If  any  of  the  journals 
are  found  to  be  scored,  they  can  be  smoothed  with  a  piece  of 
fine  emery  cloth,  this  being  rubbed  round  the  bearing  shaft 
backward  and  forward,  by  taking  hold  of  each  end  of  the 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  245 

emery  cloth   and  working  it  backward  and  forward   until  a 
smooth  surface  is  obtained. 

Examination  of  Parts  and  Reassembling  the  Engine. 
Now  carefully  examine  the  bolts  which  secure  the  flywheel 
to  the  crank,  and  notice  whether  any  of  these  are  at  all 
loose,  as  if  so  they  must  be  thoroughly  tightened  up  and  se- 
cured by  split  pins.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  there  will  be  very 
excessive  wear  on  the  crankshaft  pinion,  which  actuates  the 
half-time  wheels,  as  in  a  properly  designed  engine  the  wear 
and  tear  at  this  point  are  not  such  as  to  require  frequent  re- 
newal of  the  part.  Thoroughly  examine  every  other  detail 
making  up  the  engine,  and  clean  free  from  oil  or  any  dirt. 
A  good  washing  through  with  kerosene  removes  all  grit  and 
any  extraneous  matter.  The  reassembling  of  the  engine  re- 
quires careful  attention,  as  on  this  entirely  depends  the  suc- 
cess or  otherwise  of  the  overhauling.  Every  part  should  be 
replaced  exactly  as  found,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  lubri- 
cate all  bearings,  piston  rings,  valve  spindles,  camshaft  bear- 
ings, cams,  rollers,  and  guides,  and  above  all,  every  nut  must 
be  properly  secured,  as  if  a  single  split  pin  is  left  out,  or  if 
put  in  place  and  left  unopened,  a  breakage  sooner  or  later  is 
sure  to  follow,  which  means  great  expense  to  remedy.  OH 
reassembling  the  engine,  the  timing  of  the  valves  can  be  per- 
formed as  already  described  and  illustrated,  and  after  putting 
the  engine  together  as  specified,  it  may  be  put  on  one  side 
ready  for  again  placing  in  the  car  when  the  other  parts  have 
received  attention. 

Overhauling  the  Gear  Box. 

If  the  bearings  are  found  not  to  be  excessively  worn,  and 
also  the  gear  wheels  and  strikers  are  in  fair  condition,  the 
only  thing  that  need  be  done  to  the  gear  box  is  thoroughly 
to  clean  out  the  grease  and  oil,  then  wash  through  with  kero- 
sene, and  finally  lubricate  all  the  bearings,  and  put  in  the 
box  the  requisite  quantity  of  oil  and  grease  which  experience 
has  shown  the  owner  to  be  necessary.  If  it  is  found  that  the 
bearings  are  too  slack,  then  the  same  course  must  be  adopted 


246  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

as  with  the  crankshaft  bearings,  although  it  may  only  be  nec- 
essary to  take  off  the  top  half  of  the  case,  leaving  the  bottom 
in  position  on  its  supporting  frame ;  the  bearings  can  then  be 
taken  off  and  worked  up  in  a  vise,  if  split  bronze  bearings 
are  used.  If  plain  bush  bearings  are  fitted,  these  will  have 
to  be  removed  or  relined  with  metal.  If  the  gears  are  badly 
worn,  and,  say,  a  quarter  of  the  tooth  has  been  ground  away 
through  gear  changing,  then  it  is  necessary  to  renew  the  par- 
ticular wheels  which  are  worst  worn.  It  is  usually  cheaper 
and  quicker  to  get  these  from  the  firm  supplying  the  car,  as 
they  should  in  every  case  be  absolutely  interchangeable ;  and 
all  that  is  required  to  secure  them  in  place  is  to  take  off  the 
old  wheel,  put  on  the  new,  and  bolt  or  rivet  it  up  in  position. 
On  receipt  of  any  new  part  from  a  manufacturer  or  agent, 
it  should  always  be  checked  over  with  the  old,  so  that  mis- 
takes cannot  occur,  as  where  a  number  of  types  of  cars  are 
sold  by  the  same  firm,  and  also  when  these  are  altered  from 
year  to  year,  some  confusion  may  ensue  in  obtaining  spare 
parts. 

The  Differential  Gear  and  Live  Axle. 

An  important  part  of  the  machine  to  examine  in  overhauling 
is  the  differential  gear,  to  see  whether  this  has  worn  exces- 
sively, or  excessive  play  has  appeared  in  the  pins  carrying 
the  planet  wheels.  This  can  best  be  done  by  jacking  under 
one  end  of  the  axle,  inside  or  under  the  spring,  so  that  the 
road  wheel  on  that  side  is  free  from  the  ground,  then,  by  tak- 
ing hold  of  the  spokes  of  this  wheel  and  gently  rocking  it  to 
and  fro,  the  amount  of  play  between  the  gear  wheels  and  the 
main  driving-shaft  in  the  gear  box  can  be  ascertained.  Of 
course,  this  play  will  be  made  up  from  a  number  of  parts  in 
a  live  axle  drive;  the  first  amount  of  play  that  will  be  found 
will  be  between  the  center  pinions  of  the  differential  gear  and 
the  planet  pinions.  The  next  amount  of  play  will  be  between 
the  large  bevel  and  its  small  bevel,  which  is  attached  to  the 
propeller-shaft.  Then  next  the  shaft  joints,  which  are  nearly 
always  found  to  contain  a  fair  amount  of  play,  and  finally 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  247 

through  the  direct  drive  there  may  be  further  play  between  the 
gear-box  and  the  clutch  sleeve. 

As  a  rule,  differential  gears  are  now  made  so  that  very  little 
play  is  obtainable  in  them  even  after  a  good  many  thousands 
of  miles  running,  and  generally  the  most  excessive  play  is 
found  between  the  two  bevel  pinions  and  in  the  universal 
joints.  The  smaller  driving  bevel  pinion  in  some  cases  can  be 
adjusted  by  the  deeper  engagement  with  the.  larger;  this  opera- 
tion can  usually  be  performed  from  the  outside,  an  adjusting 
cup  and  locking  ring  being  fitted.  In  other  cases,  a  ball-thrust 
ring  is  used,  no  adjustment  being  supplied  in  this  ;  also  possibly 
a  plain  bearing  with  a  collar  is  fitted,  so  that  in  the  two  latter 
cases,  if  adjustment  is  required,  a  washer  must  be  inserted 
to  make  up  for  the  play  found. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  take  a  back  axle  down  if  there  is  not 
found  to  be  excessive  play  in  the  inside  parts ;  the  only  thing 
to  do  is  to  run  out  all  the  grease  and  oil,  wash  through  with 
kerosene,  and  after  replacing  the  plug  usually  fitted  to  the 
case  bottom  for  the  removal  of  dirty  oil,  refill  with  a  mixture 
of  clean  oil  and  thick  grease.  If  the  propeller-shaft  joint  pins 
or  blocks  are  found  to  be  much  worn,  these  can  be  renewed  for 
a  fairly  small  sum.  In  a  number  of  cases  the  size  of  the  joints 
is  not  at  all  proportionate  to  the  power  which  has  to  be  trans- 
mitted through  them,  and  therefore  they  are  constantly  giving 
trouble  by  excessive  wearing  of  the  pins.  When  these  pins 
become  loose,  the  noise  from  them  is  very  objectionable,  a  con- 
stant knocking  being  noticed,  which  is  not  only  bad  from  the 
silence  standpoint,  but  is  also  very  bad  for  all  the  transmis- 
sion gear,  as  it  is  always  desirable  to-  run  this  without  any 
knock  to  insure  a  sweet  running  car. 

In  the  case  of  a  chain-driven  car,  the  chains  should  be  re- 
moved and  thoroughly  soaked  in  clean  kerosene  to  remove  all 
the  dirt,  after  which  they  should  be  placed  in  melted  fat 
or  tallow,  so  that  all  the  joints  can  be  permeated  with  this, 
then,  after  they  have  been  thoroughly  soaked  in  it,  if  taken  out 
and  allowed  to  cool,  a  thin  film  of  fat  is  left  in  every  joint,  and 
the  chains  work  very  well  when  replaced.  To  keep  the  dirt 


248  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

from  a  chain,  amateurs  will  often  find  very  successful  results 
from  fitting  a  thin  metal  shield  above  and  below  the  chains,  as 
in  this  way  the  dirt  thrown  from  the  road  wheels  is  directed 
away  from  the  chains. 

Examination  of  Ball  Bearings,  etc. 

While  the  front  wheels  are  jacked  up  for  overhauling  the 
ball  bearings  or  plain  bearings  can  be  tried  for  wear;  the 
ball  races,  where  fitted,  can  be  adjusted  if  necessary,  care  al- 
ways being  taken  to  leave  a  little  play,  otherwise  breakage  of 
some  of  the  balls  is  sure  to  follow.  Be  very  careful  to  lock 
up  the  cones  with  the  locking  devices  provided,  or  when  run- 
ning the  wheel  cone  may  either  unscrew  or  tighten  up,  with 
disastrous  result.  For  a  plain  bearing,  if  excessive  wear  is 
found,  the  hub  will  require  rebushing,  this  operation  being 
best  performed  either  by  a  local  repairer  or  by  the  makers 
of  the  car.  Usually,  when  such  an  operation  is  required, 
there  are  other  parts  of  the  car  which  require  attention,  so 
that  a  good  thing  to  do  is  to  send  it  to  the  repair  shop  with  a 
list  of  things  requiring  attention,  and  the  lot  can  be  done  at 
once. 

Examination  of  Wheels  and  Tires. 

Each  of  the  wheels  should  be  overhauled  in  turn,  special 
attention  being  paid  to  the  joints  at  the  hub  flanges  and  also 
where  the  spoke  enters  the  felloe.  If  a  wooden  wheel  has  been 
built  up  with  partly-seasoned  timber,  it  is  rather  likely  to 
shrink  and  the  spokes  to  become  loose  at  the  nave.  In  this 
case,  the  bolts  binding  the  two  flanges  together  and  gripping 
the  spoke  centers  should  be  well  tightened;  the  rear  wheels 
are  the  ones  which  usually  give  trouble  in  this  respect,  because 
with  these  the  driving  strain  is  taken  through  them  to  the 
tire.  Of  course,  the  effect  in  this  case  is  to  pull  out  the  spokes 
tangentially  also,  as  there  is  considerably  more  side  stress 
on  the  rear  wheels  in  turning  a  corner.  Owing  to  the  greater 
distribution  of  weight  for  driving  purposes  on  these  wheels, 
they  are  or  should  be  made  stronger  than  the  front  wheels. 
If  the  paint  happens  to  be  disturbed  at  the  joints,  it  does  not 


'AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  249 

follow  that  the  spoke  is  loose,  but  the  precaution  should  al- 
ways be  taken  of  feeling  the  nut  and  trying  whether  it  can  be 
tightened  up  further  with  a  spanner  without  straining  the  bolt, 

Next,  the  tires  should  be  examined  for  cuts  or  perishing 
of  the  rubber,  the  latter  being  usually  indicated  by  cracks  at 
the  sides  of  the  outer  casing.  At  the  end  of  a  season's  running 
it  is  advisable  to  take  off  each  of  the  tires  in  turn  and  examine, 
to  see  that  no  dirt  or  other  erosive  substance  has  worked  be- 
tween the  outer  cover  and  inner  tube,  as  after  some  time  this 
invariably  rubs  a  hole  in  the  inner  tube.  If  the  tires  are  sound, 
and  they  do  not  appear  to  be  badly  worn,  they  can  be  at  once 
replaced,  care  being  taken  either  to  lightly  rub  the  inner  part 
of  the  casing  with  flake  graphite  or  with  plenty  of  French 
chalk,  so  that  when  heated  through  running  the  inner  tube  will 
not  stick  to  the  casing.  If  the  canvas  should  show  signs 
of  rotting  through  the  penetration  of  damp  or  wet,  the  cases 
may  be  returned  to  the  makers  or  agents  for  examination  and 
repair;  also  if  the  tread  is  worn  very  thin,  or  is  badly  cut  in 
a  number  of  places,  the  makers  should  have  the  casing  to  vul- 
canize on  it  another  tread,  which,  of  course,  will  last  for  several 
thousands  of  miles  running. 

In  the  case  of  small  cuts,  these  may  possibly  be  patched  up 
by  the  owner.  To  do  this,  the  cut  should  be  well  cleaned  out 
by  dabbing  inside  it  with  cotton-wool  moistened  with  gaso- 
lene. This  clears  away  the  dirt,  and  also  makes  the  rubber 
tacky ;  then  if  the  cut  is  very  large,  a  wedge  of  good  rubber 
previously  treated  with  rubber  solution  and  allowed  to  get 
tacky  should  be  inserted  in  the  cut.  Before  putting  in  the 
wedge,  the  cut  should  also  have  received  a  dressing  of  the 
solution  after  the  dirt  has  been  cleaned  away  with  the  gas- 
olene-damped wad.  In  case  of  blistering  of  the  tires,  this  is 
usually  due  not  to  dirt  picked  up  from  the  road,  as  a  number 
of  people  imagine,  but  to  internal  friction  between  the  canvas 
and  the  rubber  of  the  casing.  The  makers  are  the  best  people 
to  treat  defects  of  this  nature.  If  it  is  necessary  to  replace 
the  tires  by  new  ones,  it  is  always  advisable  to  fit  the  largest 
possible  section  of  tire  that  the  rim  will  take. 


250  AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES 

Electrical  Items. 

Where  magneto  ignition  is  used,  the  magneto  does  not  usu- 
ally require  attention ;  with  low  tension  the  strikers  in  the 
cylinder  may  require  slightly  touching  up  where  they  are 
worn,  or  even  may  require  replacing  by  new  ones.  In  the 
case  of  batteries,  these  should  be  examined,  and  where  a 
brtiwn  powder  or  any  particles  of  paste  are  found  inside  the 
case  the  acid  should  be  emptied  out  into  an  eathenware  vessel, 
and  the  battery  well  washed  out  with  clean  rain  water,  so  that 
all  the  particles  can  be  removed  through  the  ventholes.  If 
plates  are  buckled  or  the  paste  has  dropped  out  in  several 
places,  the  battery  should  be  returned  to  the  makers  or  agents 
for  overhauling,  as  this  is  a  job  not  readily  performed  by  the 
amateur.  If,  before  taking  down  the  car,  the  coil  and  commu- 
tator have  worked  satisfactorily,  these  should  not  be  touched, 
as  when  a  part  is  working  well,  beyond  the  usual  periodical 
attention  which  all  mechanism  requires,  it  should  not  be 
overhauled  just  for  the  sake  of  doing  so.  Usually  the  only 
trouble  with  a  good  induction  coil  is  that  due  to  cleaning 
and  adjustment  of  the  trembler  screw,  a  fine  bit  of  emery 
cloth  and  a  file  being  used  to  remove  any  excrescence  which 
may  be  formed  upon  the  platinum  point,  the  adjustment  of  the 
trembler  being  completed  when  the  commutator  is  making  con- 
tact on  its  metal  wire.  Usually  the  sound  given  off  from  the 
trembler  is  an  indication  as  to  when  it  is  correctly  set,  al- 
though this  may  be  verified  by  laying  the  sparking  plug  on  the 
metal  cylinder  and  examining  the  spark  obtained  at  its  points 
in  the  usual  way  when  all  the  connections  are  made.  The 
wiring  system  should  be  examined,  and  wherever  a  wire  is 
chafed  or  the  insulation  damaged  it  should  be  renewe*4 

Attention  to  Brakes  and  Details. 

The  countershaft  and  rear  wheel  brakes  should  be  examined, 
and  if  the  interior  lining,  which  in  some  cases  consists  of  belt- 
ing or  a  thin  casing  of  metal  (often  cast  or  wrought  iron), 
be  worn  badly  it  should  be  renewed.  For  internal  expand- 
ing brakes,  the  metal  parts  in  rubbing  contact  should  be  ex- 


AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  251 

amined,  and  if  worn  thin  they  should  be  renewed.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  adjusting  up  these  brakes  after  taking  down  and, 
renewing,  so  that  when  on  the  road  an  even  pull  is  imparted 
to  both  the  drums,  otherwise  there  is  sure  to  be  a  tendency  to 
skid  the  car.  The  final  adjustment  of  the  brakes  can  only 
be  effected  when  tested  on  the  road.  In  the  case  of  a  brake 
fitted  with  removable  shoes,  there  is  not  such  great  difficulty 
in  replacing  these,  as  usually  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  remove 
a  couple  of  bolts,  when  the  brake  shoe  will  come  away  and  can 
be  immediately  replaced  by  a  new  one.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  in  replacing  the  parts  care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that 
all  split  pins  are  renewed  and  properly  opened  out,  other- 
wise there  is  danger  of  some  part  coming  adrift  on  the  road. 

All  the  tanks,  radiator,  and  an}r  part  where  there  are  joints 
that  may  require  packing,  such  as  the  pump,  gland,  etc.,  should 
receive  attention ;  also  any  small  joints  wherein  the  holes  are 
badly  worn  should  be  overhauled  and  the  necessary  work 
done  to  them  to  take  out  any  backlash,  as  the  accumulation 
of  backlash  in  various  parts  of  the  mechanism  causes  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  rattle.  The  components  of  the  whole 
rattle  are  really  small,  but  when  taken  together  constitute 
quite  a  formidable  noise. 

If  there  are  any  rents  or  breakages  in  the  upholstery  of 
the  car,  these  should  receive  attention  at  the  hands  of  a  coach- 
builder.  A  coat  of  varnish  on  the  body  and  other  parts  very 
considerably  improves  the  appearance,  if  done  properly  by 
a  coachbuilder. 

Some  unimportant  points  may  have  been  omitted,  but  in 
going  over  a  car  the  owner  will  no  doubt  have  noticed  these, 
and  will  have  remedied  them  where  desired.  If  the  general 
instructions  given  are  correctly  interpreted,  every  satisfaction 
should  be  experienced  in  the  continued  use  of  the  car  when 
all  the  parts  are  reassembled  exactly  as  taken  down. 


The  Thompson  Series  of  Home  Study  Books 

Books  that  not  enly  TELL  you  how  to  do  things 
But  SHOW  you  how 

AUTOMOBILE  TROUBLES  AND  HOW  TO  REMEDY  THEM  -»  By 
Charles  P.  Root,  Fprmer  Editor  of  Motor  Aye.  225  pages,  fully  illustrated,  round 
corners,  pocket  size,  red  edges.  A  practical  book  for  Automobile  Owners.  Drivers, 
Repairmen,  intending  purchasers  and  all  those  interested  directly  or  indirectly  in 
Motor  Cars.  Overhauling  and  general  repair  of  the  car  is  taken  up  and  discussed 
at  length.  A  book  that  not  only  tells  you  how  to  locate  trouble  and  make  repairs 
but  shows  you.  The  only  book  of  its  kind  published.  Price,  Flexible  Leather, 
$1.50.  Cloth $1.00 

AUTOMOBILE  DRIVING  SE.LF-TAUGHT~.By  Thomas  H.  Russell. 
M.  E.  LL.  D.,  Former  Editor  of  Modern  Machinery,  Editor  of  the  American  Cyclo- 
pedia of  the  Automobile,  Author  o£  the  History  of  the  Automobile,  Automobile  Motors 
and  Mechanism,  Ignition,  Timing  and  Valve  Setting,  Motor  Boats:  Construction  and 
Operation,  etc.  230  pages,  liberally  illustrated,  round  corners,  pocket  size,  red  edges. 
An  exhaustive  treatise  on  the  operation,  management  and  care  of  tylotor  Cars. 
Handling  the  car  on  the  road  under  all  conditions,  making  repairs,  and  locating  faults 
are  treated  in  a  thorough  manner.  The  hints  on  management  of  cars  would  be  worth 
many  times  the  price  to  beginners.  Pricet  Flexible  Leather,  $  1.50.  Cloth,  $  1 .00 

AUTOMOBILE  MOTORS  AND  MECHANISM— By  Thomas  H.  Russell. 
M.  E.  LL.  D.,  Author  of  Automobile  Driving  Self-Taught.  Ignition,  Timing  and 
Valve  Setting.  Motor  Boats:  Construction  and  Operation,  etc.  265  pages,  round  cor- 
ners, red  edges,  pocket  size,  fully  illustrated.  A  practical  illustrated  treatise  on  the 
power  plant  and  motive  parts  of  the  modern  motor  car,  for  owners,  operators,  re- 
pairmen, and  intending  motorists.  Price,  Flexible  Leather,  $1.50.  Cloth,  $1.00 

IGNITION,  TIMING  AND  VALVE.  SETTING-By  Thomas  H.  Russell. 
M.  E,.  LL.  D.,  Author  of  Aut,omobile  Motors  and  Mechanism.  Automobile  Driving 

)  Self-Taught.  Motor  Boats:  Construction  and  Operation,  etc.  Fully  illustrated,  225  pages, 
round  corners,  pocket  size,  red  edges.  A  comprehensive  illustrated  manual  for  self- 
instruction  for  automobile  owners,  repairmen  and  all  interested  in  motoring 
Price,  Flexible  Leather,  $1.50  Cloth, $1.00 

MOTOR  BOATS:  CONSTRUCTION  AND  OPERATION»By  Thomas 
H.  Russell,  M.  E..  LL.  D.,  Editor  of  The  American  Cyclopedia  of  the  Automobile, 
Author  of  The  History  of  the  Automobile.  Automobile  Driving  Self-Taught.  Autoniobile 
Motors  and  Mechanism.  Ignition.  Timing  a.nd  Valve  Setting,  etc.  300  pages.  An  illus- 
trated manual  for  motor  boat,  launch  and  yacht  owners,  operators  of  marine  gasolene 
engines  and  amateur  boat  builders.  Intended  principally  for  the  man  who  is  not  a 
mechanic.  Its  purpose  is  to  provide  a  compendious  guide  to  the  design,  construction, 
installation  and  operation  of  marine  motors  and  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
motor  boats.  Price,  Flexible  Leather,  01.50  Cloth, $1.00 

A  B  C  OF  T»E  MOTORCYCLE-»By  W.  J.  JacKman,  M.  E.  Authorof 
Facts  for  Motorists.  Crushed  Stone  and  its  Uses,  etc.  Former  Editor  of  the  Chicago  Daily 
Journal  Liberally  illustrated,  250  pages,  round  corners,  red  edges,  pocket  size. 
A  book  of  practical  information  for  men  who  use  motorcycles.  It  describes  the  mec- 
hanism and  operation  of  the  motorcycle  so  plainly  that  any  man  of  average  intelli- 
gence can  understand  it,  regardless  of  mechanical  training.  It  is  the  one  practical 
book  that  really  shows  you  how  and  should  be  read  by  every  man  who  uses  a 
motorcycle.  This  book  shows  how  you  to  remedy  road  troubles  almost  instantly. 
Price,  Flexible  Leather .' $1.50  o  Cloth, $1.06 

FLYING    MACHINES:    CONSTRUCTION    AND    OPERATION  —  By 

W.  J.  JacKman,  M.  E.  Author  of  A  B  C  of  the  Motorcycle,  Facts  for  Motorists, 
Crushed  Stone  and  Its  Uses,  etc.,  and  Thomas  H.  Russell,  A.  M.,  M.  E.  Charter 
Member  of  the  Aero  Club  of  Illinois,  author  of  History  of  the  Automobile,  Motor  Boats: 
Construction  and  Operation,  etc.  With  introductory  chapter  by  Octave  Chanute, 
C.  E,.,  President  of  the  Aero  Club  of  Illinois.  Profusely  illustrated,  about  250  pages, 
round  corners,  red  edges,  pocket  size.  Just  the  book  for  those  who  want  to  know 
how  to  construct  and  operate  gliders  and  Hying  machines.  It  "shows  how"  in  both 

pictures  and  text.     Price,  Flexible  Leather $1.50         Cloth, $1.00 

These  books  are  written  in  plain,  simple,  everyday  language,  fully 
illustrated  with  especially  prepared  drawings,  diagrams  and  illustra- 
tions that  show  you  how.  Sold  by  Booftsellers  generally,  or  sent 
postpaid  on  receiot  of  price. 

CHARLES  C.  THOMPSON  COMPANY, 

1126-28   S.    Wabash   Avenue,    Chicago 


I 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


JAN  15  1986 


OCT15 


" 


LD21A-50m-2,'71 
(P20QlslO)476 — A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


IAN 


TU 


GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


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